Radial nerve is among the first sizeable nerves distributed within the superior limb of the human body. Now let just go through the anatomy of radial nerve before getting into radial nerve injury.

 

Fig 1: Wrist Drop due to Radial Nerve Palsy

 

Anatomy of the Radial Nerve

The radial nerve is an important nerve in the arm that mainly controls muscle movement and sensation. Here’s a simpler breakdown of its anatomy:

1. Origin

• The radial nerve starts from the posterior cord of the brachial plexus, which consists of fibers from the cervical spinal nerves C5, C6, C7, C8, and sometimes T1.

 

2. Pathway

• It travels downward, passing behind the axillary artery.
• It enters the upper arm near the long and medial heads of the triceps muscle, accompanied by the profunda brachii artery.

 

3. Location in the Arm

• Unlike the spiral groove of the humerus the radial nerve runs alongside the superior aspect of the medial triceps with only muscle fibers separating the nerve from the bone and this is at a distance of 3-4 mm.
• The nerve only encounters the humerus in the lower segment of the bone in a region that passes through the lateral intermuscular septum to the anterior compartment. tissue that keeps it about 3-4 mm away from the bone.
• The nerve only touches the humerus in the lower arm, where it pierces the lateral intermuscular septum to enter the anterior compartment.

 

4. Branches

• In the upper arm, it gives off motor branches to the triceps.
• About 10 cm above the lateral epicondyle, it enters the anterior compartment between the brachialis and brachioradialis muscles, providing motor branches to the brachioradialis and extensor carpi radialis longus. It also sends a branch to the brachialis, though this muscle is mainly supplied by the musculocutaneous nerve.

 

5. Bifurcation

• The radial nerve divides into two branches—superficial and deep—around the lateral epicondyle. This can happen anywhere from 4.5 cm above to 4 cm below the epicondyle.
• At this point, it also gives off a branch to the extensor carpi radialis brevis.

 

6. Superficial Branch

• The superficial branch continues down the arm, underneath the brachioradialis muscle.
• It emerges at the junction of the middle and distal thirds of the forearm, supplying sensation to the skin on the lateral side of the back of the wrist and hand.

 

7. Deep Branch (Posterior Interosseous Nerve)

• This branch is mainly motor and supplies muscles in the posterior forearm. It passes through the supinator muscle, using a fibrous arch called the arcade of Frohse.
• After exiting the supinator, it quickly divides into branches that innervate:
  • Superficial group: Extensor digitorum, extensor digiti minimi, and extensor carpi ulnaris.
  • Deep group: Abductor pollicis longus, extensor pollicis longus, extensor pollicis brevis, and extensor indicis.

 

Injury to the Radial Nerve

It is broadly categorized into four groups: Depending on site where the damage has occurred, which components of the nerve have been affected.

1. Axilla: Radial nerve may be injured in the axilla due to fracture of the proximal humerus and shoulder joint dislocation. Additionally, excessive pressure on the nerve in the axilla, (e.g. poorly fitting crutch can also cause injury).

Motor Functions:

• Triceps brachii and posterior compartment muscles are affected.
• Unable extend at the forearm, wrist and fingers which results in unopposed wrist flexion, referred as wrist drop.

Sensory Functions:

• Four cutaneous branches are affected of the radial nerve.
• Loss of sensation over lateral & posterior forearm.
• Loss of sensation over posterior forearm & dorsal surface of lateral three and a half digits.

 

2. Radial Groove: Radial nerve is tightly bound within spiral groove of the humerus, it particularly vulnerable to injury in cases of humeral shaft fractures.

Motor Functions:

• Triceps brachii weakened but not paralysed.
• Posterior forearm muscles are affected. Unable to extend at wrist and fingers resulting in unopposed flexion of wrist occurs, known as wrist drop.

Sensory Functions:

• Cutaneous branches to the arm & forearm already formed
• Sensory loss to the dorsal surface to lateral three and half digits, if superficial branch of the radial nerve will be damaged.
• Sensory loss to the associated area on the dorsum of the hand.

 

3. Forearm: Two terminal branches located within the forearm. Mechanism of injury and effect of their injury differs:

Superficial Branch v/s Deep Branch

Mechanism:

• Superficial Branch: Stabbing or laceration of the forearm.
• Deep Branch: Fracture of the radial head or posterior dislocation of radius.

Motor functions:

• Superficial Branch: None
• Deep Branch: Majority of muscles affected in posterior forearm. Some extension at the wrist maintained and wrist-drop does not occur, due to unaffected extensor carpi radialis longus.

Sensory Functions:

• Superficial Branch: Sensory loss affected the lateral three and half digits and the corresponding area on the dorsum of the hand.

 

Diagnosis of Radial Nerve Injury

1. Diagnostic Tests for Compression Neuropathies:

• Various tests are available, each with strengths and weaknesses.
• Diagnosis can be achieved through imaging and non-imaging techniques.

 

2. Non-Imaging Techniques:

Electrodiagnostic Studies:

• Includes electromyography (EMG) and nerve conduction studies (NCS).
• EMG is limited in scope but helpful in ruling out conditions mimicking radial neuropathies.
• NCS is effective in identifying demyelination at the spiral groove.
• Additional techniques may be needed for higher-resolution lesion identification.
• EMG and NCS can diagnose and grade peripheral nerve injuries but may not pinpoint anatomical causes of chronic injuries.

 

3. Imaging Techniques:

Ultrasonography (US):

• Has improved in resolution over time.
• Limited by operator dependency, leading to variable results.
• High-frequency transducers enhance US effectiveness for specific radial neuropathies, like at the spiral groove.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI):

• Provides higher soft tissue contrast and reduces user variability.
• High-resolution MR imaging allows differentiation between normal and pathological nerves.

 

Treatment for Radial Nerve Injury

Medical Management

• Conservative Management:
  • First-line treatment for radial nerve entrapment syndrome.
  • Includes:
    • Oral anti-inflammatory medications.
    • Activity modification to avoid aggravating activities.
    • Physical therapy, Immobilization with Splinting.
  • Limited evidence supporting the effectiveness of these therapies.
  • Many studies confirm the need for more effective treatments beyond conservative management.
  • Recommended trial of medical management for a minimum of six weeks before progressing to other treatments.

 

Minimally Invasive Techniques

• Lidocaine Infusion:
  • Some discussions around its use for refractory chronic pain.
  • Further research needed, particularly regarding piriformis syndrome.
• Corticosteroid Injections:
  • Commonly among the first methods attempted.
  • Mentioned by multiple authors, but no large-scale studies confirm their efficacy for radial nerve entrapment.
• Peripheral Nerve Stimulation (PNS):
  • A newer and effective treatment option.
  • Involves implantation of a device under ultrasound guidance.
  • Studies indicate significant pain relief in most patients after implantation, though infection risk exists.
• Radiofrequency Techniques:
  • Recent advancements noted.
  • Pulsed radiofrequency described for treating refractory lateral epicondylitis, showing potential but requiring larger trials for validation.

 

Surgical Techniques

• General Surgical Interventions:
  • Evolving towards smaller incisions and shorter recovery times.
  • Recommended only after a trial of 3-6 months of non-operative options.
  • Success rates reported up to 92-95% for nerve release procedures.
• Open Surgical Techniques:
  • Larger surgical field reduces risk of iatrogenic injuries but involves incisions and scarring.
  • Potential complications and opioid use disorder risks noted.
• Endoscopic Techniques:
  • Less invasive, reduce post-operative recovery time.
  • Comparable efficacy to open techniques regarding pain syndrome, recovery beyond 6 months, and symptom reduction.
• Non-Contact Laser Doppler Flowmetry:
  • Utilized during surgery to monitor nerve perfusion in real-time.
  • Can reduce incision length and improve functional recovery when used with endoscopic releases.

 

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q1. What happens if the radial nerve is damaged?

Ans. Weakness, loss of coordination of the fingers. Problem straightening the arm at the elbow. Problem bending the hand back at the wrist or holding the hand. Pain, numbness, decreased sensation, tingling, or burning sensation in the areas controlled by the nerve.

 

Q2. What are the sites of radial nerve injury?

Ans. The radial nerve is prone to entrapment at three different sites: as it passes between the heads of the triceps brachii muscle, in the spiral groove of the humerus, and while piercing the lateral intermuscular septum.

 

Q3. What is the difference between wrist drop and finger drop?

Ans. The wrist drop is due to the weakness of the extensor carpi radialis longus (ECRL) while the finger and thumb drop due to the fascicular involvement of the posterior interosseus nerve (PIN). Sensory symptoms over the superficial radial sensory along the radial side of the forearm and thumb may also occur.

Radiology is a study of medical technology, it is a important discipline included in the MBBS typically introduced in the later years of medical training. It covers various imaging techniques used to diagnose and manage diseases, including X-ray, ultrasound, computed tomography, positron emission tomography, nuclear medicine and magnetic resonance imaging.

Radiology serves as a critical link between clinical medicine and diagnostic image technology helping medical professionals to visualize internal structures and identify pathological conditions.

A strong grip in radiology for medical students is important, as it aids in accurate diagnosis, treatment/management planning and monitoring of diseases progression with stages.

The radiology curriculum in MBBS covers topics like principles of imaging modalities, anatomy in imaging, interpretation of radiographs, advanced imaging techniques, radiation safety, and the role of radiology in various clinical scenarios, including trauma, oncology, and pediatric care.

 

Important Topics in Radiology

In the NEET-PG examination 10- 15 questions are asked, while in the INI-CET there are about 15-20 questions that are based on the Radiology Subject.

These competitive exams mainly cover the extent of the candidates’ knowledge about medical imaging procedures, diagnosis diagnostic accuracy principles and role of radiology in clinical practice.

Acquaintance of subject weightage, typical examination formats, areas of significant potential for high yield and general study strategies can greatly help to improve conceptual understanding of Radiology exam.

 

Imaging of All Emergencies

• Pneumothorax
• Tension Pneumothorax
• Pneumomediastinum
• Pneumoperitoneum
• Pneumocephalus
• Aortic Dissection
• Aortic Aneurysms and Rupture
• Pseudoaneurysms-Yin yang sign
• Pulmonary Thromboembolism Stroke Imaging-Acute Infarct
• Hyperdense MCA sign
• DWI
• Head Trauma-Epidural hematoma
• Swirl sign
• Subdural hematoma
• Subarachnoid hemorrhage
• Intraparenchymal and intraventricular bleed Abdominal Trauma-FAST
• CECT liver lacerations
• Splenic injury Acute Abdomen-Acute Pancreatitis
• Small and large Intestinal obstruction and Volvulus

 

X-Rays

Concepts of Kilovolt Peak (KVP) and Milliampere-Seconds (MAS)

• KVP (Kilovolt Peak): Refers to the maximum voltage applied across the X-ray tube, influencing the quality and penetrability of the X-ray beam. Higher KVP results in better image quality with less radiation exposure.
• MAS (Milliampere-Seconds): Indicates the quantity of X-ray exposure, combining the current (mA) and the duration (s) of the exposure. It affects the density and contrast of the image.

Important X-ray Views

• Water View
• Caldwell View
• Rhese View
• Stryker’s View
• Schuller View
• Lordotic View
• Reverse Lordotic View

Radiation Interactions

• Compton Effect
• Photoelectric Effect
• Bremsstrahlung Radiation

Mammography Technique

• Differences from Conventional Radiography

Hysterosalpingography Images

• Normal
• Unicornuate Uterus
• Bicornuate Uterus
• Didelphys Uterus
• Hydrosalpinx

IVP Images

• Ureterocele
• Droopy Lily Sign
• Retrocaval Ureter

 

CT Scan

Types of CT Imaging

• Spiral CT
• HRCT (High-Resolution CT)
• MDCT (Multidetector CT)
• Dual Energy CT

CT Anatomy

• Brain
• Mediastinum
• Abdomen
• Lungs

Coronary Calcium Scoring

• Agatston Scoring

CT Angiography

• Pulmonary Thromboembolism

Radiation Protection

• Lead Apron
• TLD Badge (Thermoluminescent Dosimeter)

 

MRI Indications and Contraindications

• MRI Sequences: T1-weighted imaging, T2-weighted imaging, FLAIR (Fluid-Attenuated Inversion Recovery), STIR (Short Tau Inversion Recovery), DWI (Diffusion-Weighted Imaging), DTI (Diffusion Tensor Imaging).
• MR Spectroscopy
• MRI Planes: Axial Images, Coronal Images, Sagittal Images of brain

 

USG

• Piezoelectric Effect: General of electrical charge in certain materials under mechanical stress
• Ultrasound Phenomena: Posterior Acoustic Shadowing, Posterior Acoustic Enhancement
• FAST (Focused Assessment with Sonography for Trauma
• EFAST (Extended FAST)
• EUS (Endoscopic Ultrasound
• Doppler Ultrasound Techniques: Color Doppler, Spectral Doppler
• Doppler Assessments: Umbilical Artery Doppler, Uterine Artery Doppler, Fetal MCA (Middle Cerebral Artery) Doppler

 

Radiotherapy

1. Teletherapy

• Linac
• Stereotactic Radiotherapy
• IMRT (Intensity-Modulated Radiation Therapy)
• Craniospinal Irradiation
• Electron Beam
• Proton Beam: Bragg Peak

2. Brachytherapy

• Permanent and Temporary Implants
• Pura Beta Emitters

3. Systemic Radiotherapy

• I-131
• Strontium-89
• P-32

4. Law of Bergonie and Tribondeau

5. Radiosensitivity of Tissues and Tumors

6. Different Iodine Isotopes

• I-131
• I-125
• I-124
• I-123

7. Half-Lives of Important Radioisotopes

• F-18
• Tc-99m
• Iodine Isotopes
• P-32
• Co-60
• Cs-137

 

Nuclear Medicine

• Thyroid Imaging: Thyroid Scintigraphy, Lingual Thyroid
• Renal Scans: DMSA, DTPA, MAG-3 Scan
• Cardiac Imaging: Myocardial Perfusion Imaging, Myocardial Infarct Imaging
• Bone Imaging
• Sulfur Colloid Scan
• Tc-99m Sestamibi Scan
• Octreotide/Somatostatin Receptor Scintigraphy
• PET Imaging
• HMPAO-SPECT

 

Neuroradiology

• Imaging of Meningioma
• Tumor Comparisons: Medulloblastoma vs. Ependymoma, Arachnoid Cyst vs. Epidermoid Cyst, Craniopharyngioma vs. Pituitary Adenoma
• Important Named Signs: Mount Fuji Sign, Racing Car Sign, PAND Sign, Hummingbird Sign
• CNS Conditions: TB Meningitis, Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD)
• Imaging of Stroke: Hyperdense MCA Sign, Penumbra, CT Perfusion Imaging
• Intracranial Bleeds: Extradural Bleed, Subdural Bleed, Subarachnoid Bleed, Intraventricular Bleed, Intraparenchymal Bleed

 

Respiratory Radiology

• X-ray Views: Posteroanterior vs. Anteroposterior View
• Medical Conditions: Collapse, Consolidation, Pleural Effusion, Pneumothorax
• Important Signs: Golden S Sign, Luftsichel Sign, Silhouette Sign
• Specific Conditions: X-ray of Pulmonary Edema, Sarcoidosis, Pulmonary Thromboembolism
• CT Imaging: Bronchiectasis, Interstitial Lung Disease, Pulmonary Alveolar Proteinosis
• Fungal and Parasitic Infections: Aspergillosis, Hydatid Disease of the Lung, Lung Abscesses, Fungus Ball, Hydropneumothorax
• Other Findings: Lucent Hemithorax, Foreign Body

 

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q1. Is radiologist a good career in India?

Ans. Radiology is one of the most sought-after medical specialities and is in high demand globally. One needs at least 7 years of formal medical education to become a radiologist in India.

 

Q2. What is the highest paid job in radiology?

Ans. 7 highest-paying radiology jobs are:

• MRI technologist
• Radiologic technologist
• Cardiovascular technologist
• Sonographer
• Radiation therapist
• Nuclear medicine technologist
• Ultrasonographer

 

Q3. What is the salary of a Radiologist in India?

Ans. Radiologists make an average salary of INR 4,00,000 per year. Entry-level job positions offer around INR 3,00,000. The experienced workers make up to INR 2,975,000 per year.

Erb’s palsy or Erb-Duchenne palsy is one of the types of brachial plexus birth palsy (BPBP), where there is a paralysis of the arm caused by injury to the upper group of the arm’s main nerves, specifically the injury of the upper trunk C5-C6 nerves which is a part of the brachial plexus. These injuries arise most commonly, but not exclusively from shoulder dystocia during a difficult birth.

 

Etiology of Erb’s Palsy

Erb’s Palsy is commonly linked with lesions of cervical spinal nerves C5 and C6 of the brachial plexus, which is a complex formed by the ventral spinal nerve branches of cervical spinal nerves C5 to C8 and the extremity of the ventral ramus of the thoracic spinal nerve T1. These nerves arise from the spinal cord, run through the cervicoaxillary canal and the ribs and then come out into the axillary region.

A stretch on the neck is the leading cause of brachial plexus injury which occurs during delivery. It is common especially when a larger baby is being delivered and in the process the baby’s head must be pulled out through the birth canal which leads to stretching of the brachial plexus. Shoulder dystocia becomes an essential risk factor in these cases as it may trigger maneuvers that cause undue force on the baby’s neck.

However, the brachial plexus injuries can occur during labour with infants of average weight and more often it happens in cases when shoulder dystocia is not observed. Other factors associated with the risk include cases where a baby is born in breech presentation, a second stage of labour is short, the mother is a multipara, she is obese, diabetic, or underwent vacuum or forceps delivery. Erb’s Palsy can also appear after a caesarean section, therefore raising more possibilities of the causes for this affliction.

Thereby, knowing these risk factors can aid healthcare providers prevent or prepare for hazards that may cause Erb’s Palsy and or related injuries within delivery.

 

Fig. 1: A&B Erb’s Palsy

 

Clinical Presentation of Erb’s Palsy

• Characteristics position of the affected limb held close to the body rotated medially with elbow extended and pronated.
• Decreased movement of the affected limb can be elicited by asymmetric Moro’s response.
• Associated features of Horner’s syndrome (ptosis, miosis and anhidrosis).
• Respiratory distress, feeding difficulties as asymmetric chest rise due to diaphragmatic weakness or paralysis with phrenic nerve damage.
• Orthopedic injuries like humerus fracture or clavicular fracture to be looked.

 

Pathophysiology of Erb’s Palsy

The ventral rami of the cervical spinal nerves C5 and C6 contribute to form the upper trunk of brachial plexus. Both trunks are divided into anterior and posterior, which get subdivided into the cords. These cords branching regard several branches including the axillary nerve, the suprascapular nerve and the musculocutaneous nerve which innervate muscles of the upper limb.

Injuries to the brachial plexus can range from mild to severe, and their severity is classified into three categories: neuropraxic, axonotmetic and neurotmetic.

• Neuropraxic erosion of the peripheral nerve is the least severe. Most of them don’t cause complications and can be reversed with time.
• Axonotmetic trauma implies the damage of the axon with destruction of the myelin sheath. Curing of these injuries depends on the area of the body through which it has passed as well as the extent of the injury, this may take months after appropriate treatment has been administered, which may include physical therapy.
• Neurotmetic injuries are the more severe type where nerve roots are torn off the spinal cord. The type of injury that affects the axon, myelin sheath and the structures that support the nerve is irreversible. Sometimes, to regenerate, the proximal end of the nerve may from a neuroma although the prospects for the return of function are generally bleak.

 

Treatment Plan for Erb’s Palsy

The management of Erb’s Palsy includes a wide range of options aimed at the degree of the injury, as well as the age of the affected child. Speed is of essence when it comes to treating the injuries to avoid complications later in life. Here’s a comprehensive overview of the treatment options:

 

1. Observation & Physical Therapy

When the condition is classified as mild, or in some cases neuropraxia, the traditional treatment advice is to let the patient wait out the condition to improve the range of motion. This phase requires physical therapy to be effective. Mild procedures such as physiotherapy to encourage an improvement in the specific muscles and general muscle the child gradually regains their range of motion.

 

2. Occupational Therapy

Occupational therapist mainly deals with addressing children’s functional limitation regarding their daily living activities. Therapists endeavor to help children with respect to mobility, tonicity and coordination of upper and lower extremities. Examples of strategies can be those activities that involve the use of the affected arm with exercises such as passive movements, gentle stretching, massage or range of motion exercises.

 

3. Surgical Treatments

When the injury is severe, especially if the patient’s condition does not begin to improve within a few months, surgery might be required. Common surgical procedures include:

• Nerve repair: Operation can involve re-establishing the continuity of the severed nerve if a nerve is totally severed or transected.
• Nerve grafting: Nerve graft is an overview of another nerve from another section of the body can be applied to connect the missing link of the injured nerve.
• Tendon transfer: This procedure may be attempted if the child has shown signs of a serious weakness or paralysis. Muscles can be reconstructed by transplanting tendons from other muscles when healthy.

 

4. Supportive Care

Managing care is mandatory for Erb’s Palsy. This includes:

• Pain management: Analgesia can be rather important for a child’s comfort and may involve drug use or other options.
• Family education: To break the spirit of the parents this condition and the likely hood of each can be explained to them which will give them more confidence and prepare them to be actively involved in the recovery process for their child.
• Psychosocial support: It is suggested that families may be able to receive some counseling or support groups since they know other families that are struggling through similar challenges.

 

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q1. What are brachial plexus nerves and how are they affected in brachial plexus palsy?

Ans. Brachial plexus nerves are a network of nerves formed from the ventral rami of cervical spinal nerves C5 to T1. They control the muscles and sensation in the upper limb. In brachial plexus palsy, these nerves can become damaged during difficult deliveries, such as those involving excessive pulling on the neck, leading to muscle weakness and loss of motion in the affected arm.

 

Q2. What is the role of nerve transfer in treating brachial plexus injuries?

Ans. Nerve transfer is a surgical procedure used as an effective treatment for severe brachial plexus injuries. This technique involves rerouting healthy nerves to restore function to damaged nerves. By connecting healthy nerve fibers to the affected areas, it can help improve muscle strength and regain lost motion in the arm.

 

Q3. What types of motion exercises are recommended for recovery from brachial plexus injuries?

Ans. Motion exercises are crucial for individuals recovering from brachial plexus injuries. These exercises help improve flexibility, strength, and coordination in the affected arm. A physical therapist can tailor a program that focuses on gentle stretching and strengthening to encourage the use of the arm, ultimately aiding in recovery from muscle weakness and loss of motion.

 

Q4. How does birth weight impact the risk of brachial plexus injury during delivery?

Ans. Higher birth weight, often seen in macrosomic infants, is a common type of risk factor for brachial plexus injuries during delivery. When the birth weight exceeds typical ranges, it increases the likelihood of difficult delivery situations, such as shoulder dystocia, which can stretch or damage the brachial plexus nerves.

 

Q5. Can brachial plexus injuries occur in breech births, and what are the implications?

Ans. Yes, brachial plexus injuries can occur during breech births. The positioning of the baby can complicate delivery, increasing the risk of damage to the cervical nerves and leading to muscle weakness or loss of motion in the arm. Early intervention and effective treatment strategies are essential for optimal recovery in such cases.

DigiNerve is constantly evolving to enhance the user experience while you’re on their journey to becoming a Top Doc. We are excited to bring the latest updates with our commitment to ensure a seamless journey on the go.

Read our monthly newsletter’s September edition (Vol – 2) for the latest updates.

 

CONTENT UPDATES

PostGrad Course Updates

Dermatology MD:-

1. Chat show on “Scabies and Pediculosis” by Dr. Ragunatha Shivanna, Dr. Priyanka Hemrajani, and Dr. Mariya Babu M. has been added to the course:

Learning Outcomes of the chat show are:

• Understand nature and burden of disease.
• Describe clinical types and clinical features of disease.
• Understand relevance and significance of life cycle of mite and louse in treatment.
• Describe efficacy and safety of therapeutic drugs.

 

Ophthalmology MD:-

1. Chat show on “Presbyopia Correcting IOLs” by Dr. N. Venkatesh Prajna and Dr. Haripriya Aravind has been added to the course:

Learning Outcomes of the chat show are:

• Indications and contraindications of implanting toric.
• Indications and contraindications of EDOF.
• Indications and contraindications of MFIOLs.
• Factors related to preoperative evaluation, intraoperative pearls and post operative assessment.

 

Professional Course Updates

Critical Care Simplified:-

1. The panel discussion on “Controversies and Advances in Sepsis” has been added to the module name Sepsis.

 

Update Your DigiNerve App for Better Experience.

 

To read the updates shared in the Monthly Newsletter September (Vol-1), click here.

Chronic sinusitis is a chronic inflammation of mucous membranes of paranasal sinuses by which irreversible degenerative changes have occurred. Almost invariably succeeds acute sinusitis which did not receive adequate treatment, or it can also develop following a cold or tooth infection.

It occurs when the self-cleansing mechanism of nose and paranasal sinuses gets impaired. Most involved sinusitis is maxillary sinus with duration of symptoms is more than 3 months.

 

Etiology

Causes of chronic sinusitis are:

• Infection of pharynx, nose and molar teeth
• Trauma to the sinuses and barotraumas
• Local factors include deviated nasal septum, allergy and nasal polypi
• Also includes, chest conditions, such as asthma, chronic bronchiectasis, and chronic bronchitis, responsible for chronic sinusitis.

 

Chronic sinusitis according to histological changes in the sinus mucosa as follow:

1. Atrophic Sinusitis

Main changes take place in afferent vessels leading to cellular response at and around the arterioles and arteries, later the vessel wall itself becomes thickened and contracted causing endarteritis and thrombosis. In this condition, there is much less edema present as this is primarily a condition that affects the horse’s lower jaw. Hypertrophic and atrophic coexist in the same sinus, the condition causing atrophy at one location and polypoidal hypertrophy at the other place.

2. Hypertrophic Sinusitis

It is characterised mainly by the fact that inflammation is chiefly of the efferent vessels and of the lymphatics. Recurrent stresses take place, which result in changes of the venous and lymphatic flow and organization lead to the formation of oedema and polypoidal mucus membranes, polyps, oedema of periosteum and osteoporosis.

3. Papillary Sinusitis

Occurs when metaplasia of ciliated columnar epithelium to stratified squamous type and throughout the papillary hyperplastic epithelial cells or stroma may be seen inflammatory cells. It is a viral infection.

4. Follicular Sinusitis

Small follicles are seen in the mucous membranes of the sinuses.

5. Glandular Sinusitis

Increase markedly in the submucosal tissue lining of sinuses.

 

What Kind of Surgery is Done for Chronic Sinusitis?

There are different types of surgery including minimally invasive techniques using endoscopes to remove blockages such as polyps or infected tissue, or to improve drainage in the sinuses. Here are some surgical procedures for chronic sinusitis:

 

Functional Endoscopic Sinus Surgery

Functional endoscopic surgery is a procedure to re-establish the drainage of the natural ostia and to restore ventilation and mucociliary clearance.

It is based on the principle that clearing the blocked ostium will restore the mucociliary clearance and the diseased mucosa normalizes.

Equipment Used for FESS

• 4 mm 0-degree endoscope
• Angled endoscopes: 30◦, 45◦, 70◦
• Camera
• Display screen
• Light source

Indications for Endoscopic Sinus Surgery

• Chronic Sinusitis
• Nasal Polyps
• Sinus Tumors
• Anatomical Abnormalities

Procedure

• First stack system positioned infront of surgeon. Usually done under general anesthesia, some surgeons prefer local anesthesia especially is unfit patients. Decongestion is done in the observation room with pledgets or nasal patties.
• Patient lies in supine position with head on a ring and head end can be elevated to 15 – 30 degrees.
• The two techniques are:
  • Stammberger’s technique (anterior to posterior): Surgery is done from uncinate process towards sphenoid sinus.
  • Wigand’s technique (posterior to anterior): Surgery starts from sphenoid sinus and proceeds anteriorly.
• The pledgets/patties soaked in 4% xylocaine adrenaline are removed and a thorough endoscopic examination is done with the three passes.
• First pass, between the septum and inferior turbinate up to choana to visualize the nasopharynx and Eustachian tube.
• In second phase, it passes through middle meatus.
• In third phase, between the superior turbinate and the septum up to the visualization of sphenoid ostia.
• Local infiltration using 2% lignocaine adrenaline given on the axilla of middle turbinate, septum, uncinate process, middle turbinate and lateral wall.
• Uncinate process is identified and the uncinectomy is done.
• Maxillary ostia are identified, widened and the maxillary sinus is cleared.
• Clearance of the anterior ethmoids beginning with the bulla ethmoidalis then done.
• Posterior ethmoids are then cleared after removal of the basal lamella and cleared.
• If there is involvement of the frontal sinus, then the frontal recess is cleared. If there is isolated frontal sinus involvement, it can be accessed without removing the bulls, called as the intact bulla technique.
• Sphenoid sinus can then be approached via the inferomedial aspect of the most posterior ethmoid cell.
• It can also be approached medially by identifying its ostium around 1.5 cm above the roof of the nasopharynx.
• After completion of surgery and achieving hemostasis, nasal packing is done.

 

Balloon Catheter Sinuplasty (BCS)

Ballon Sinuplasty is a minimally invasive procedure used to treat chronic sinusitis. It includes use o a ballon catheter to dilate the sinus openings, improving drainage and airflow.

Balloon sinuplasty is a medical treatment that is employed by ear, nose, and throat surgeons to open blocked sinus, especially the sinusitis patients who do not respond to drugs.

The United States Food and Drug Administration approved this endoscopic, catheter-based procedure for chronic sinusitis in 2005. It employs the use of a balloon inflated over a wire catheter in order to open up the sinuses passages. It therefore helps to regain normal drainage because when filled the balloon stretches the sinus opening and therefore the walls of the passageway.

Indications:

• Chronic Sinusitis
• Nasal Obstruction

Procedure:

• Patients undergo imaging such as CT scan to assess the sinus anatomy.
• Performed under local anesthesia, sometimes with sedation.
• An endoscope is inserted into nasal passage with small balloon catheter which is threaded into the blocked sinus cavity.
• Balloon is inflated to widen the sinus opening and the balloon is deflated, removed left the passage open.

 

Frequent Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q1. What are the different types of sinus surgery?

Ans. Here are some different types of sinus surgery:

• Functional endoscopic sinus surgery (FESS)
• Turbinate surgery
• Balloon sinus dilation
• Adenoidectomy

 

Q2. What is the conservative treatment for chronic sinusitis?

Ans. Chronic sinusitis with polyps should be treated with topical nasal steroids. If severe or unresponsive to therapy after 12 weeks, a short course of oral steroids can be considered. Leukotriene antagonists can be considered.

 

Q3. What are the differences between Functional Endoscopic Sinus Surgery (FESS) and balloon sinuplasty?

Ans. FESS is a more traditional approach that involves the endoscopic removal of obstructive tissue and polyps to restore sinus drainage. In contrast, balloon sinuplasty is a less invasive technique that utilizes a balloon to dilate the sinus openings without extensive tissue removal. Both techniques aim to improve sinus drainage, but their applications may vary based on the severity and anatomy of the sinus disease.

 

Q4. What are the potential complications and considerations during the post-operative period for sinus surgery?

Ans. Potential complications include bleeding, infection, and cerebrospinal fluid leaks, although these are relatively rare. Post-operative care involves monitoring for signs of complications, managing pain, and ensuring proper nasal hygiene. Medical students should be aware of the importance of follow-up evaluations to assess healing and address any complications early. Educating patients on signs of complications is also a vital part of post-operative care.

India healthcare sector is rapidly growing, projected to grow at an impressive rate of 16-17% annually. This growth is generating a wealth of career opportunities for medical professionals, particularly doctors. From traditional clinical roles to emerging fields like telemedicine and healthcare management, the options are diverse and abundant.

By 2025, the sector is expected to employ 7.5 million people positioning it as one of the biggest employers in the country.

Additionally, research indicates that artificial intelligence will create nearly 3 million new jobs in Indian healthcare by 2028.

Medical profession is globally recognized as one of the most prestigious and well compensated fields. Earning a medical degree requires years of practical experience and dedication.

Medical students aim to specialize in a specific field take on leadership roles in hospital administration or pursue medical research the opportunity is vast.

Rise of digital health technology and telehealth platforms are expanded the ways doctors can give consultation for patients on online platforms.

Let’s explore top 10 career opportunities for doctors in this blog, learn more about challenges and rewards, it includes high demand specializations with growth and personal satisfaction.

 

Top 10 Specialization for Doctors in India

1. Neurosurgeons

In neurosurgery field, the doctors are highly trained specialists focused on treating and diagnosing conditions of the brain, spine and nervous system. Neurosurgeons perform complex surgeries like brain tumors, aneurysms, spinal cord injuries, and other neurological disorders.

This medical field demands exceptional analytical skills, great attention to detail and critical thinking to maintain high pressure in emergency situations.

Level of expertise is one the most important reasons why neurosurgeons rank among the highest paying roles in the medical field.

Average Salary Range: 33 LPA to 50 LPA

 

2. Cardiothoracic Surgeons

In this field, doctors specialize in heart and chest surgery. The surgeons in this field earn substantial salaries showing the precision and risk associated with the procedures.

Average Salary Range: 20 LPA to 90 LPA

 

3. Orthopedic Surgeons

This field includes specialization in treatment of musculoskeletal conditions, managing different types of injuries and disorders related to bones, joints, ligaments, muscles and tendons.

There are various kinds of intricate surgery performed which includes fracture repairs, joint replacement surgery, and arthroscopic procedures with using minimally invasive techniques.

The goal of orthopedic surgeon is to alleviate the pain, restore mobility, and improve patient’s activities of daily living.

Average Salary Range: 14 LPA to 15 LPA

 

4. Gastroenterologists

Gastroenterology is the field of diagnosing and treating disorders of the digestive system, addressing the issues from common conditions such as ulcers, acid reflux or inflammatory bowel disease and, some complex conditions such as gastrointestinal cancers.

Average Salary Range: 30 LPA to 32 LPA

 

5. Urologists

Urologists is a growing medical profession and a rewarding career, in which doctors specialize in treating and diagnosing urinary tract infections, kidney stones and prostrate conditions.

It also includes surgical procedures for complex conditions using minimally invasive technique options. Urologists have expertise in addressing reproductive health issues or infertility.

Average Salary Range: 21 LPA to 22 LPA

 

6. Dermatologists

Dermatology position is among the highest-paying opportunities in the medical field. This field is specialized in diagnosing and treating disorders of the hair, skin and nails, addressing the wide range of conditions from common issues such as acne vulgaris or eczema to more complex conditions such as psoriasis, skin cancer, and hair loss.

Average Salary Range: 9 LPA to 10 LPA

 

7. Radiologists

Radiologists play a crucial role in medical field, to diagnose and treatment of diseases with various imaging techniques, such as CT-scans, MRIs, X-rays and nuclear medicine scans, to find out the abnormalities which helps to guide medical treatment.

Average Salary Range: 24 LPA to 25 LPA

 

8. Anaesthesiologists

Anesthesiologists plays a vital role during surgical procedures by administering anesthesia with ensuring the safety and comfort of patients.

They monitor vital signs, manage pain and provide supportive care to patients throughout the surgical procedure. To excel technical knowledge for this role, doctor must have extensive medical knowledge, effective communication abilities, stress management with critical care skills.

Average Salary Range: 10 LPA to 11 LPA

 

9. Oncologist

Oncology field specialize in treatment and diagnosis of cancer. Oncologists develop personalized tailored treatment after diagnosis based on type and stage of cancer. In treatment options it includes surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, immunotherapy, or targeted therapy. This field is one of the highest-paying job roles in the medical field.

Average Salary Range: 28 LPA to 29 LPA

 

10. Plastic Surgeon

Plastic Surgeons are demand fields will increase more in upcoming years, it deals with wide range of conditions, including congenital abnormalities, aesthetic problems, and traumatic injuries.

The plastic surgeons perform reconstructive and cosmetic surgery to enhance appearance with using minimally invasive techniques for improved patient outcomes.

Average Salary Range: 31 LPA to 32 LPA

 

Essentials Skills Required to Pursue Medical Career

1. Clinical Skills: Medical practice is important to perform physical examination, medical procedures or interpret diagnostic tests.
2. Critical Thinking: A doctor requires careful analysis and quick decision making in any medical situation presents with complex problems.
3. Attention to Detail: It is important to check closely all significant information about patient’s lab results, performing surgical procedures, or during administration of medication to ensure the patient safety and effective treatment.
4. Communication Skills: It includes empathy and active listening to communicate with patients and their families, also to clearly explain complex medical information.

 

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q1. What are the highest paying jobs for doctors in India?

Ans. Here are some best medical fields:

Specialty	Annual Salary Range
Neurosurgeons	₹25 lakhs to over ₹1 crore
Cardiothoracic Surgeons	₹20 lakhs to ₹90 lakhs
Orthopaedic Surgeons	₹18 lakhs to ₹80 lakhs
Gastroenterologists	₹15 lakhs to ₹40 lakhs

Q2. Which MD branch has the highest salary?

Ans. Radiologists are the main branch of medicine that has highest salary in India. Also, it’s depending on your skill, experience and your way to treat the patients.

 

Q3. What is the highest-paying job in the medical field that doesn’t require NEET?

Ans. The highest-paying jobs in the medical field that don’t require NEET are found in areas such as clinical research, nursing, biotechnology, biomedical sciences, and biochemistry. These positions offer attractive salaries ranging from ₹450,000 to ₹900,000 per year in India.

 

Q4. Which are the best courses that you can apply for after passing NEET?

Ans. Here are some best courses after passing NEET

• BDS (Bachelor of Dental Surgery)
• BAMS (Bachelor of Ayurvedic Medicine and Surgery)
• BHMS (Bachelor of Homoeopathic Medicine and Surgery)
• MBBS (Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery)

NEET PG 2025 starts with a thorough understanding of exam pattern and syllabus. The overview of topics and how to efficiently cover the entire syllabus within the limited time available is crucial for medical students.

Finding which subjects carry most weightage is important for effective time management. Prioritizing high-weightage topics will allow you to focus on student’s efforts for maximizing the chances of success in examinations.

Various online platforms & institutes offer NEET PG coaching guidance, but not all deliver the same level of results. This blog will help you personalized learning plans with important topics to excel in the exam.

Also explore mastering the syllabus, consider integrating active learning techniques, like practice questions, group discussions, and regular revision with time management.

Let’s dive into this blog to gain a comprehensive understanding of NEET PG 2025 exam pattern, syllabus with subject wise weightage.

 

NEET PG 2025 Exam Pattern

NEET PG 2025 exam pattern is important for students as it provides insights into the structure of the final paper. Students need to familiarize themselves with marking schemes and overall exam format before getting into exam preparation for NEET PG 2025.

The current format consists of 200 questions, and it includes negative marking for incorrect answers.

Number of Questions	200 Questions
Types of Questions	Multiple Choice Questions
Marks for Correct Answer	4 Marks
Negative Marking for Incorrect Answer	1 Mark
Time Duration of Exam	3 Hours 30 Minutes
Total Marks	800
Mode of Exam	Computer-based Mode

 

NEET PG 2025 Subject-Wise Weightage of Questions

For preparing NEET PG 2025, it is important to understand the weightage of questions across different subjects. This information will help students to identify which subjects are important for the exam strategy.

The number of questions from each subject will provide a clearer perspective on where to focus more and help in time management strategies. Examine this information closely to optimize the study plan for next year.

S. No.	Subject	Subject-Wise Weightage
Part A
1	Anatomy	17
2	Physiology	17
3	Biochemistry	16
Part B
1	Clinical Pathology	25
2	Pharmacology	20
3	Microbiology	20
4	Forensic Medicine	10
5	Social and Preventive Medicine	25
Part C
1	General Medicine Including Dermatology, Venerology, and Psychiatry	45
2	General Surgery Including Orthopedics, Anesthesia and Radiodiagnosis	45
3	Obstetrics and Gynecology	30
4	Pediatrics	10
5	ENT	10
6	Ophthalmology	10

 

NEET PG 2025 Pre-Clinical Subjects

Subject	Topics
Anatomy	Gross Anatomy Osteology Muscular System Arthrology Cardiovascular System Respiratory System Digestive System Genito-Urinary System Endocrine System and Individual Endocrine Glands Nervous System and its components Special Sensory Organs Lymphatic System Surface Anatomy Cross-Sectional Anatomy Cross-sections of thorax, abdomen and pelvis to understand the interrelationship of organs and structures Microanatomy
Biochemistry	Biological cells Biomolecules Enzymes Metabolic pathways, their regulation and metabolic interrelationships Carbohydrate metabolism Metabolism of Amino acid Lipid TCA cycle and biological oxidation, proteinoids Regulation of the metabolic pathways Food assimilation and nutrition, Hormones Molecular Biology, pH, Buffer, physiological buffer systems, Immunology Environmental biochemistry, cancer and cancer makers
Physiology	General Physiology, Nerve–Muscle, Blood Respiratory System Cardiovascular System Gastrointestinal System, Nutrition Environmental Physiology Kidney Neurophysiology Sensory system Motor system Visceral and motivational system, EEG Sleep and higher nervous functions

 

NEET PG 2025 Para-Clinical Subjects

Subject	Topics
Pathology	Introduction to Pathology, Cell Injury Amyloidosis and Calcification Inflammation and Repair, Circulatory Disturbances Growth Disturbances and Neoplasia Immunopathology Infectious Diseases Miscellaneous Disorders Cardiovascular Pathology Respiratory Pathology Urinary Tract Pathology Pathology of the Gastro-Intestinal Tract Hematopathology, Liver and Biliary Tract Pathology Lymphoreticular System Reproductive System Osteopathology Endocrine Pathology Neuropathology
Microbiology	Introduction to Microbiology Bacteriology, parasitology Virology and Mycology Bacterial Staining and Cultivation Common Tests for Bacterial Identification Laboratory Diagnosis of Viral Infections Common Laboratory Methods for Diagnosis of Fungal Infections Collection of Transport of Samples Host-Parasite relationship Bacterial and Viral Genetics Immunity to infection Immunodiagnostic Vaccines Sterilization and disinfection Bacteriology of water and air Microorganisms associated with gastrointestinal infections (Bacteria, parasites, viruses and fungi) Gastrointestinal disorders caused by parasites
Forensic Medicine	Forensic Pathology Clinical forensic medicine Medical Jurisprudence Forensic Psychiatry Forensic Sciences General, clinical, environmental and analytical toxicology
Pharmacology	General Pharmacology Autonomic nervous system & Peripheral nervous system Central nervous system Autacoids Cardiovascular, Gastrointestinal and respiratory system Hormones, Chemotherapy, Immunomodulators Drug therapy of glaucoma and cataract Treatment of poisoning

 

NEET PG 2025 Clinical Subjects

Subject	Topics
Medicine Dermatology and Venerology	Common clinical disorders, drug therapeutics, diagnostic and investigative procedures Disorders of Pigmentation Allergic disorders Papulosquamous disorders Papule vesicular disorders Leprosy Fungal infections Scabies Pediculosis STD Malignant Skin disease
Surgery, ENT, Orthopedics, Anesthesia	Metabolic response to injury Shock Blood and blood components Burns Wound healing and wound care Surgical infections Surgical Audit and Research Ethics Investigation of the surgical patient Pre, intra and post-operative management Metabolic response to injury Shock Blood and blood components Burns Wound healing and wound care Surgical infections Surgical Audit and Research Ethics Investigation of the surgical patient Pre, intra and post-operative management Skeletal Trauma, Polytrauma Fractures Musculoskeletal Infection Skeletal Tuberculosis Rheumatoid Arthritis and associated inflammatory disorders Degenerative disorders Metabolic bone disorders Poliomyelitis Cerebral Palsy Bone Tumours Peripheral nerve injuries Congenital lesions Procedural Skills Counselling Skills Anaesthesiology as a specialty Cardiopulmonary resuscitation Preoperative evaluation and medication General Anaesthesia Regional Anaesthesia Post-anaesthesia recovery Intensive Care Management Pain and its management Fluids Patient safety
Radiodiagnosis and Radiotherapy	Identify and diagnose all aspects of Emergency Room Radiology, including basic hazards and safety precautions in radiodiagnostic practices Understand the essential role of various radiodiagnostic tools in medical practice, and explore different imaging techniques such as isotopes, CT, ultrasound, MRI, and DSA. Familiarize yourself with radioactive isotopes and their physical properties Recognize the symptoms and signs of various cancers, as well as the steps involved in their investigation and management
Ophthalmology	Anatomy and development of the eye Clinical methods in ophthalmology Optics and refraction Disease of the conjunctiva Disease of the cornea Disease of the sclera Disease of the Uveal tract, lens, Glaucoma, vitreous, Retina, Vision and neuro-ophthalmology, Strabismus and Nystagmus, Disease of the lids The disease of the lacrimal apparatus Disease of the orbit Ocular injuries Basic principles of ocular therapy Systemic ophthalmology Community Ophthalmology Miscellaneous Topics
Pediatrics	Contraception Neonatology and Recent Advances Growth and development Nutrition Immunization Infectious diseases Hematology Respiratory system Gastro-Intestinal Tract Central Nervous System Cardiovascular Genito-Urinary, Neonatology Pediatrics Emergencies Fluid-Electrolyte Genetics Behavioral Problems Pediatrics Surgical Problems Therapeutics
OBGYN	Basic Sciences-Normal & abnormal development Structure and function of female & male urogenital systems Endocrinology of the reproductive system Gametogenesis, fertilisation Role of hormones in Obstetrics & Gynecology Humoral and cellular immunology in Obstetrics & Gynecology Physiology of normal pregnancy, diagnosis of pregnancy Anemia in Pregnancy Carcinoma Cervix Epidemiology Staging diagnostic procedure Treatment of Menopause and related problems Contraception, Neonatology and Recent Advances
Psychiatry	Behavioral Sciences Cognitive process and memory Thinking and problem-solving, Intelligence: General concepts and techniques for assessment Personality (Principles of Personality development) and objective testing of Personality Introduction and classification of Psychiatric disorder Etiology of Psychiatric disorders Drug and Alcohol dependence Personality disorders Counselling and psychological therapies Psychological testing

 

NEET PG 2025 Strategies for Preparation

• Take Mock Tests
• Create a study schedule
• Give priority to high-weightage topics first
• Study regularly at least for 2-3 hours
• Examine the syllabus properly
• Group discussion for clinical cases
• Take NEET PG mock test
• Make simple notes
• Practice previous year papers
• Maximize MCQs practice
• Understand the exam pattern
• Understand your weaknesses
• Stay healthy physically and mentally

 

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q1. Which subject has the highest weightage in NEET PG 2025?

Ans. General Medicine including Dermatology, Venerology and Psychiatry has the highest weightage in the NEET PG syllabus.

 

Q2. What is the most demanding branch in NEET PG?

Ans. General Medicine is a demanding field that deals with the diagnosis and treatment of a wide range of diseases and conditions in adults.

 

Q3. Which MD branch has highest salary in India?

Ans. Cardiologists are the highest paid doctors in India. Cardiologists play a critical role in managing heart health, a vital organ. The demand for their expertise remains consistently high.

NEET Chapter Wise Weightage 2025: The National Eligibility cum Entrance Test (NEET) is the primary examination for aspiring medical students in India. It held once a year, assesses students in physics, chemistry, and biology.

Achieving high score in NEET UG 2025 is essential for gaining admission in top medical colleges like AIIMS and JIPMER. Given the intense competition understanding the chapter-wise weightage can guide students on which topics are important.

Focusing on these key areas, students can study strategically and enhance their chances of securing a seat in medical courses such as MBBS and BDS in India.

 

NEET UG 2025 Chapter Wise Weightage for Biology

The NEET UG 2025 Chapter Wise weightage for Biology provides comprehensive breakdown of topics within the biology section of the exam. This analysis helps students to understand significance of each chapter, enabling them to develop an effective study strategy.

The weightage includes key areas in both Botany and Zoology, highlighting important chapters such as Genetic and Evolution, Plant Physiology, and Human Physiology.

By focusing on this weightage, students can prioritize their studies ensuring that they cover high-scoring topics thoroughly and enhancing their chances of success in the NEET 2025 examination.

 

NEET UG 2025 Chapter Wise Weightage for Botany

The NEET UG 2025 Chapter Wise Weightage for Botany outlines the significance of each topic within botany section of the exam. It highlights which chapters are most important, including Plant Diversity, Plant Anatomy, and Morphology of Flowering Plants.

This information allows you to optimize your study time by concentrating on the most important topics. It serves as a roadmap for your preparation, guiding you to prepare effectively for the NEET exam.

NEET UG 2025 Chapter Wise for Botany
Chapters/Topics	Average No. of Questions	Weightage (%)
Biodiversity and Conservation	2	4%
Anatomy of Flowering Plant	3	7%
Cell: The Unit of Life	2	5%
Respiration in Plants	2	5%
Microbes in Human Welfare	2	4%
Cell Cycle and Cell Division	4	9%
Molecular Basis of Inheritance	6	14%
Principles of Inheritance and Variation	5	10%
Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants	3	6%
Ecosystem	2	4%
Morphology of Flowering Plants	3	6%
Plant Growth and Development	3	6%
The Living World	0	1%
Plant Kingdom	3	7%
Biological Classification	1	3%
Organisms and Populations	2	4%
Photosynthesis in Higher Plants	2	4%

 

NEET UG 2025 Chapter Wise Weightage for Chemistry

NEET UG 2025 Chapter Wise Weightage for Chemistry highlights the importance of each topic in the chemistry section of the examination. It identifies key chapters such as Chemical Bonding, Hydrocarbons, and Thermodynamics, that are particularly important for students to focus on.

NEET UG 2025 Chapter Wise for Chemistry
Chapters/Topics	Average No. of Questions	Weightage (%)
Organic Chemistry: Some Basic Principles and Techniques	2	5%
Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers	1	4%
Redox Reactions	1	3%
Structure of Atom	2	4%
Thermodynamics	2	5%
Electrochemistry	2	5%
Hydrocarbons	3	7%
The p-Block Elements (XII)	2	6%
The p-Block Elements	2	6%
Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure	3	7%
Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties	1	2%
Equilibrium	2	6%
Chemical Kinetics	2	5%
Biomolecules	2	4%
Haloalkanes and Haloarenes	1	4%
Solutions	1	4%
Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry	2	4%
Coordination Compounds	2	5%
Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids	3	9%
Amines	2	5%
The d and f-Block Elements	2	6%

 

NEET UG 2025 Chapter Wise Weightage for Zoology

NEET UG 2025 Chapter Wise Weightage for Zoology outlines the importance of different topics within the zoology section of the exam. It helps students to prioritize their studies by focusing on important chapters such as Animal Kingdom, Human Physiology, Human Reproduction and Reproductive Health, Origin and Evolution, Animal Husbandry, Biology and Human Welfare and Human Health and Diseases. This guidance aids in effective NEET preparation.

NEET UG 2025 Chapter Wise for Zoology
Chapters/Topics	Average No. of Questions	Weightage (%)
Structural Organisation in Animals (Animal Tissues)	4	8%
Locomotion and Movement	3	6%
Body Fluids and Circulation	2	5%
Evolution	3	6%
Biomolecules	5	10%
Human Reproduction	3	6%
Breathing and Exchange of Gases	2	4%
Excretory Products and their Elimination	2	5%
Reproductive Health	4	8%
Biotechnology – Principles and Processes	6	12%
Human Health and Disease	3	6%
Biotechnology and its Applications	4	7%
Animal Kingdom	7	13%
Neural Control and Coordination	1	2%
Chemical Coordination and Integration	2	4%
Total	30	100%

 

NEET UG 2025 Chapter Wise Weightage for Physics

NEET UG 2025 Chapter Wise Weightage for Physics plays crucial role in medical entrance examinations. Understanding the importance of various topics allows for smarter studying. By emphasizing the NEET UG 2025 Chapter Wise Weightage for Physics in your preparation, you can enhance your understanding and improve your chances of excelling in the Physics part of the exam.

NEET UG 2025 Chapter Wise for Physics
Chapters/Topics	Average No. of Questions	Weightage (%)
Mechanical Properties of Solids	1	2%
Moving Charges and Magnetism	2	5%
Center of Mass & System of Particles	1	2%
Wave Optics	1	2%
Electromagnetic Induction	1	3%
Mechanical Properties of Fluids	2	3%
Electromagnetic Waves	2	3%
Rotational Motion	3	6%
Oscillations	1	3%
Ray Optics and Optical Instruments	3	6%
Kinetic Theory of Gases	1	3%
Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter	2	3%
Gravitation	2	3%
Current Electricity	5	10%
Semiconductor Electronics: Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits	3	5%
Units and Measurements	3	5%
Work Energy and Power	2	3%
Electric Charges and Fields	2	3%
Magnetism and Matter	1	1%
Atoms	1	3%
Nuclei	2	4%
Motion in a Plane	1	3%
Mathematical Tools & Vectors	1	1%
Laws of Motion	1	2%
Thermodynamics	1	2%
Waves	1	1%
Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance	3	5%
Alternating Current	2	4%
Thermal Properties of Matter	0	1%
Motion in a Straight Line	1	3%

 

Strategy to Complete the NEET UG 2025 Chapter Wise Weightage Syllabus

• Analyze the Weightage.
• Create a structured study plan.
• Focus on core concepts of high-weightage chapters.
• Utilize recommended textbooks, online courses or practice previous year questions materials.
• Periodically review each chapter for better understanding and retention of key concepts.
• Practice regularly mock tests with regular practice sessions.

 

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q1. Which subjects have the most weightage in NEET?

Ans. From Physics subjects, Thermodynamics and Optics, while Chemistry, Thermodynamics and Carbon Compounds have the highest weightage of NEET 2025. While Biology, Diversity from Living Organisms, Human Physiology and Genetics and Evolution have a better chapter-wise weightage of NEET 2025.

 

Q2. What is the 75 rules in NEET?

Ans. According to NEET 2025 Eligibility Criteria candidates are allowed to appear for the entrance exam as many times as they would like to only if they are eligible. This is to inform all the students who are planning to appear in the NEET 2025 examination that there are no 75% criteria in NEET.

 

Q3. What is the weightage of each subject in NEET 2024?

Ans. The Biology section receives 360 points out of 720, the Chemistry section receives 180 points, and the Physics section receives 180 points.

 

Q4. Which subject is most important for NEET?

Ans. The NEET 2024 question paper’s Biology section is the most important. Botany and zoology are the two topics covered in the NEET Biology syllabus. The NEET UG 2024 biology test has a maximum possible score of 360. Candidates might perform better in Biology subjects on the NEET 2024 with better concepts.

DigiNerve is constantly evolving to enhance your experience while you’re on your journey to becoming a Top Doc. We are excited to bring you the latest updates with our commitment to ensure a seamless journey on the go.

Read on the September edition (Vol – 1) of our monthly newsletter to know the latest updates.

 

CONTENT UPDATES

PostGrad Course Updates

Dermatology MD:-

1. Benchmark Trials for 108 topics have been updated in the course.

 

Pediatrics MD:-

1. Chat show on “Approach to a Child with Developmental Delay” by Dr. Piyush Gupta, and Dr. Monica Juneja has been added to the course.

Learning Outcomes of the chat show were:

• Definition and classification of developmental delay
• Screening and diagnosing developmental delay
• Identifying medical and developmental co-morbidities
• Evaluation of risk factors for developmental delay
• Establishing the etiology

 

Professional Course Updates

MRCOG Part 1:-

1. Webinar on “Acid-base Balance” by Dr. Richa Saxena has been added to the course.

Learning Outcomes of the webinar were:

• Identify, understand, and manage respiratory acidosis
• Understand and manage metabolic acidosis
• Interpret and analyse arterial blood gases (ABGs)
• Recognize, diagnose, and treat respiratory alkalosis
• Diagnose and manage metabolic alkalosis

 

Update Your DigiNerve App for Better Experience.

INI-CET is conducted for admission to PG courses (MD, MS,DM (6yrs), MCh (6 yrs), and MDS at various INIs, including AIIMS, JIPMER, NIMHANS, PGIMER and SCTIMST.

If you are an INI-CET aspirant, it’s important for you to know the important dates, eligibility criteria, application process, and other exam-related essential details. You must arrange all the required documents you need to upload beforehand.

For the January session 2025, INI-CET is going to be held on 10th November 2024 and for the same, you must be well versed with the important dates including application commencement, documents upload, admit card release, and more.

In this blog, we have mentioned all the INI-CET important dates, application fees, must-know things before filling out the application form, and the step-by-step application process.

 

Important Dates for INI-CET January 2025 Session

Procedure	Start Date	Closing Date
Online Application for Registration and Basic Information	05.09.2024	05.10.2024 (by 5:00 pm)
Confirmation of Status of Registration and Basic information and Last Date of Correction of Rejected Images	06.10.2024	08.10.2024 (by 5:00 pm)
Final Status of Accepted Registration and Basic Information	09.10.2024 (by 5:00 pm)
Date of Uploading Notice for Seat Position of Sponsored/Foreign National Category	26.09.2024
Generation of Examination Unique Code (EUC) [Only for Accepted Registration and Basic Information] Completion of Application form [Only for candidates who have generated EUC code] Editing of Completion of Application Form [Change of category will not be allowed after payment of registration fee in any circumstances] *(Previous EUC code not valid for January 2025 session)	26.09.2024	18.10.2024 (05:00 pm)
Uploading of Valid Certificate/Card [SC/ST/OBC(NCL)/EWS/PwBD Certificate and OCI Card] * The OBC(-NCL) certificates should have been issued on or between 01.04.2024 to 10.11.2024 (Date of Exam) *The EWS certificate must be valid for the financial year 2024-2025 and issued on or between 01.04.2024 to 10.11.2024	26.09.2024	10.11.2024 (05:00 pm)
Date(s) of Checking Status of Completion of Application Form & Last Date of Submission of Required Documents *Status of Completion of Application will be displayed on My Page after Login	22.10.2024	24.10.2024 (05:00 pm)
Regularization of Rejected Application	24.10.2024 (05.00 pm)
Final Status of Online Registration and Uploading of Admit Card on AIIMS website	04.11.2024 (Monday)
Date of Examination	10th November, 2024 (Sunday)
Last Date of receiving application form duly recommended & forwarded with “No Objection Certificate” from the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Govt. of India for Foreign Nationals to apply and appear in the INI-CET for PG courses – January 2025 session	08.11.2024 (by 05:00 pm)
Last Date to Upload a Scanned Copy of the Sponsored Certificate	08.11.2024 (by 05:00 pm) Friday
Result Declaration (Tentative)	16.11.2024, Saturday
Online Seat Allocation	Will be notified separately
Date of Commencement of Courses	1st January 2025
Last Date of Admission	28th February, 2025

 

INI CET 2025 Application Form

The application process for the INI CET 2025 January session has begun. Here are the key points for filling out the application form:

1. Registration Start Date: The registration for the January session opened on September 5, 2024.
2. Application Period: The application form will be available until October 5, 2024.
3. Required Documents: Ensure that you upload a passport-sized photograph and signature in the prescribed format while filling out the form.
4. Eligibility: Verify that you meet all eligibility criteria before submitting the form, as only applications from eligible candidates will be accepted.
5. Correction Facility: Note that there may or may not be a provision for correcting errors in the application form. Be cautious and review all entries carefully.
6. Printout: After completing the application, take a printout of the filled-in form for future reference.

 

INI-CET 2024: Application Fee

The INI-CET application fee for the General/OBC Candidates/Foreign National/OCI applicant is Rs. 4000/- whereas for the SC/ST/EWS applicant, the application fee is Rs. 3200/-.

The PwBD candidates are exempted from paying the examination fee.

The application form is successfully submitted only after the application fee payment. It is to be paid at the last step of the application in the online mode only.

 

How to Apply for INI-CET

To apply for INI CET, follow these steps:

1. Visit the Official Website.
2. Register and Provide Basic Information.
3. Generate Exam Unique Code (EUC).
4. Upload your images and documents in the specified format and size.
5. Double-check all details in your application form for accuracy.
6. Submit Application Fee.
7. Take a printout of the completed form for your records.

 

INI-CET 2025 Exam Pattern

Here are the details regarding the INI CET 2025 exam pattern:

Exam Mode	The INI-CET 2025 exam will be conducted online (Computer-Based Test).
Duration	Candidates will have 3 hours to complete the exam.
Question Type	Feature objective-type questions.
No. of Questions	Question paper will consist of 200 questions.
Marking Scheme	Each correct answer will earn 1 mark.
Negative Marking	For each incorrect answer, 1/3 mark will be deducted.

 

INI-CET 2025 Syllabus

Subject	Topic
Chemistry	Section A: General and Inorganic Chemistry, Periodic Properties of Elements, Structure of Atoms, etc. Section B: Organic Chemistry, Chemistry of Elements and Compounds, etc. Section C: Physical Chemistry, Chemical Equilibrium, Energetics, States of Matter, etc.
Physics	Topics include Electricity, Circular Motion, Nuclear Physics, Electronic Devices, Electromagnetic Induction, Thermodynamics (Work and Heat), Solids, Wave Motion, Optics, the First Law of Thermodynamics, Measurement, and Motion.
Botany	Topics include Transport of Water and Minerals, Anatomy and Physiology of Plants, Plant Growth and Development (Meristems), Botany and Human Welfare, Absorption and Cell Water Relations, Growth Regulators, Internal Structure of Dicot and Monocot Leaves, Photosynthesis, Internal Structure of Dicot and Monocot Roots, Transpiration and Respiration, Tropic and Turgor Movements, Internal Structure of Stem and Secondary Growth, Xylem and Phloem (Cell Elements and Functions), etc.
Zoology	Topics include Anatomy and Physiology, Diversity of Animal Life, Developmental Biology, Histology, Fundamentals of Genetics and Evolution, and the Reproductive System.
General Knowledge	Topics include Company Slogans, Major Businesses, Famous Awards and Prizes, Current Affairs, Top Corporate Officials, Science, Books and Authors, History, World Records, and Major Corporate Events.

 

INI-CET Exam Centers 2025 Session

New Delhi	Sikkim	Bikaner
Lucknow	Shillong	Gandhinagar
Noida	Agartala	Bhopal
Dehradun	Kolkata	Jodhpur
Haldwani	Ahmedabad	Sikar
Guwahati	Aurangabad	Udaipur
Meghalaya	Ajmer	Panaji
Manipur	Siliguri	Tripura
Bhilai Nagar	Shimla	Amritsar
Mumbai	Ambala	Kurukshetra
Chhattisgarh	Jammu	Bhatinda
Nagpur	Hisar	Hamirpur
Bengaluru	Chandigarh	Patna
Pune	Karnal	Agra
Greater Noida	Guntur	Allahabad
Tirupathi	Raipur	Vijayawada
Vishakhapatnam	Ernakulam	Kannur
Puducherry	Kottayam	Madurai
Chennai	Coimbatore	Kollam
Salem	Tirunelveli	Thiruvananthapuram

 

The brain is a remarkable three-pound organ responsible for regulating all bodily functions, interpreting external information and embodying the essence of our mind and soul. It governs various capabilities including intelligence, creativity, memory, and emotions. Safeguarded within the skull the brain consists of three main parts: the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem.

It processes information received through the five senses- sight, smell, touch, taste and hearing often simultaneously. The brain integrates these sensory inputs to create meaningful perceptions and stores them in memory. It also controls our thoughts, speech, movement, and the functioning of various organs throughout the body.

The central nervous system (CNS) includes the brain and the spinal cord. In contrast, the peripheral nervous system (PNS) comprises the spinal nerves extending from the spinal cord and the cranial nerves emerging from the brain.

 

Membranes Covering the Brain and Spinal Cord

Meninges cover the whole brain and spinal cord. It has three different layers:

 

1. Dura Mater

Consist of two layers of dense fibrous tissue. Outer layer lines the skull bones and inner layer covers the brain. These two layers are closely adherent except where the inner layer separates.

• Cerebral Hemisphere- The falx cerebri
• Cerebellar Hemisphere- The falx cerebelli
• Cerebrum and cerebellum- Tentorium Cerebelli

 

2. Arachnoid Mater

It’s a serous membrane between dura and pia mater- the space b/w dura and arachnoid mater called as subdural space, in which cerebrospinal fluid flows. Arachnoid mater continues to envelope spinal cord and ends by merging the dura mater at the level of 2nd sacral vertebrae.

 

3. Pia Mater

This is a vascular membrane. Brain covering the convolutions and deepening down into each fissure. This filum terminal pierces the arachnoid and dural tubes and goes on the fuse with the periosteum of coccyx.

 

Skull

Depending on their shapes, bones are classified as long, short, flat or irregular. Bones are different proportions of the two types of osseous tissue: compact and spongy bone.

While the former has a smooth structure, the latter is composed of small needle-like or flat pieces of bone called trabeculae, which form a network filled with red or yellow bone marrow. Most skull bones are flat and consist of two parallel compact bone surfaces with layer of spongy bone sandwiched in between. The spongy bone layer of flat bones predominantly contains red bone marrow and has a high concentration of blood.

The skull is a highly complex structure consisting of 22 bones. These can be divided into two sets, the cranial bones and the facial bones. While the latter form the framework of the face, the cranial bones form the cranial cavity that encloses and protects the brain. All bones of the adult skulls are firmly connected by sutures. The frontal bone forms the forehead and contains the frontal sinuses which are air filled cells within the bone. Most superior and lateral aspects of the skull are formed by the parietal bones while the occipital bone forms the posterior aspects.

The base of the occipital bone contains the foramen magnum, which is a large hole allowing the inferior part of the brain to connect to the spinal cord. The remaining bones of the cranium are the temporal, sphenoid and ethmoid bones.

 

Meninges

The meninges are three connective tissue membranes enclosing the brain and the spinal cord. Their functions are to protect the CNS and blood vessels, enclose the venous sinuses, retain the cerebrospinal fluid and form partitions within the skull. The outermost meninx is the dura mater which enclose the arachnoid mater and the innermost pia mater.

 

Brain Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

Ventricles: Hollow, fluid-filled cavities in the brain

• Lateral Ventricles: Two ventricles deep within the cerebral hemispheres.
• Third Ventricle: Connects with the lateral ventricles via foramen of Monro.
• Fourth Ventricle: Connects to the third ventricle through the aqueduct of Sylvius.

Choroid Plexus: Ribbon-like structure inside the ventricles that produces clear, colorless CSF.

CSF Flow Path:

• Produced in the choroid plexus.
• Flows from the lateral ventricles to the third ventricle through the foramen of Monro.
• Moves from the third ventricle to the fourth ventricle via the aqueduct of Sylvius.
• From the fourth ventricle CSF flows into the subarachnoid space around the brain and spinal cord.

CSF Reabsorption: Recycled/absorbed by arachnoid villi in the superior sagittal sinus.

Function of CSF: Cushions and protects the brain and spinal cord. Balance constant production and absorption of CSF maintain equilibrium.

Potential Issues: Hydrocephalus enlargement of ventricles due to CSF buildup. Syringomyelia is a collection of fluid in the spinal cord due to CSF flow disruption.

 

Major Parts of the Human Brain and Their Functions

Major parts of the human brain are the cerebral hemispheres, diencephalon, brainstem and cerebellum.

Human Brain Regions	Brain Functions
Cerebral Hemisphere	Located on the most superior part of the brain, separated by longitudinal fissure. 83% of total brain mass referred as cerebrum. Cerebral cortex is 2-4 mm thick gray matter surface layer. Gray matter responsible for 3 functional areas: motor, sensory and association areas. White matter responsible for communication b/w cerebral cortex and lower regions of CNS & basal ganglia.
Diencephalon	Centrally located within forebrain. Consist of thalamus, hypothalamus & epithalamus. Thalamus responsible for sensory inputs ascending to the sensory cortex. Also mediates motor activities, cortical arousal and memories. Hypothalamus responsible for autonomic (involuntary) nervous system. Epithalamus consists of pineal gland and CSF producing to choroid plexus.
Brainstem	Structured as spinal cord consist of gray matter surrounded by white matter fiber tracts. Major regions are midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata. Midbrain provides fiber pathways b/w higher and lower brains centers, responsible for visual, auditory and subcortical motor centers. Pons is a conduction region; its nuclei contribute to regulation of respiration and cranial nerves. Medulla oblongata responsible for autonomic reflex centre maintaining body homeostasis.
Cerebellum	Located dorsal to the pons and medulla accounts 11% total brain mass. It has thin outer cortex of gray matter, internal white matter and deeply situated, paired masses of gray matter. It controls skeletal muscle contraction, giving smooth coordinate movement.
Corpus Callosum	Connects right and left hemisphere to allow communication b/w the hemispheres. Forms roof of the lateral and 3rd ventricle.
Frontal Lobe	Located behind the forehead and making up 1/3rd of neocortex. Responsible for many functions: executive functions, voluntary movement, expressive language, memory storage.
Parietal Lobe	Located top and rear of the head, behind the frontal lobe and above the occipital and temporal lobes. Responsible for processing sensory input, sensory discrimination, body orientation, primary and secondary somatic area.
Occipital Lobe	Smallest lobe, located at the rear just below the parietal lobe and above the temporal lobe. Responsible for primary visual reception area, primary visual association area allows for visual interpretation.
Temporal Lobe	The temporal lobe referred to as the neocortex. It forms the cerebral cortex in conjunction with the occipital lobe, the parietal lobe, and the frontal lobe. Located mainly in the middle cranial fossa, a space located close to the skull base. Responsible for auditory receptive area and association areas, expressed behavior language, memory information.
Limbic System	Complex brain structure, located in temporal lobe, near the temples and above the ears. Limbic system is a group of interconnected brain structures that help regulate your emotions and behavior.
Basal Ganglia	The basal ganglia are a cluster of subcortical nuclei deep to cerebral hemispheres. The largest component of the basal ganglia is the corpus striatum which contains the caudate and lenticular nuclei (the putamen, globus pallidus externus, and internus), the subthalamic nucleus (STN), and the substantia nigra (SN). It regulate many cortical functions including voluntary motor control, executive, and cognitive functions.

Cranial Nerves: Origin, Distribution and Functions

S. No.	Cranial Nerves	Central Origin	Distribution	Function
1	Olfactory (sensory)	Smell area in temporal lobe of cerebrum through olfactory bulb	Mucous membrane is roof of nose	Sense of smell
2	Optic (sensory)	Sight area in occipital lobe of cerebrum, cerebellum	Retina of the eye	Sense of sight balance
3	Oculomotor (motor)	Nerve cells near the floor of the aqueduct of the midbrain	Superior, interior and medial rectus muscles, and circular muscle, and circular muscle fibers of the iris	Moving the eyeball, regulating the size of the pupils and focusing
4	Trochlear (motor)	Nerve cells near floor of aqueduct of midbrain	Superior oblique muscles of the eyes	Movement of the eyeball
5	Trigeminal (mixed)	Motor fibers from the pons varolii sensory fibers from the trigeminal ganglion	Muscles of mastication sensory to gums, cheeks, lower jaw, iris, cornea	Chewing sensation from the face
6	Abducens (motor)	Floor of fourth ventricle	Lateral rectus muscles of the eye	Movement of the eye
7	Facial (mixed)	Pons varolii	Sensory fibers to the tongue Motor fibers to the muscles of the face	Sensation of tase Movements of facial expression
8	Auditory (sensory)	Hearing area of cerebrum	Organ of Corti in the cochlea	Sense of hearing
9	Glossopharyngeal	Medulla oblongata	Back of tongue and pharynx Posterior third of tongue Parotid glands	Sense of tase Secretion of saliva Movements of pharynx
10	Vagus (mixed)	Medulla oblongata	Pharynx, larynx, lungs, heart, gallbladder, stomach, small and large intestine	Movement of secretion
11	Accessory (motor)	Medulla oblongata	Sternomastoid, trapezius, laryngeal, and pharyngeal muscles	Movement of the head and shoulders and pharynx and larynx
12	Hypoglossal (motor)	Medulla oblongata	Tongue	Movement of tongue

 

Blood Supply to the Brain

• Major arteries are vertebral and internal carotid arteries.
• Internal carotid arteries supply to the cerebrum and vertebral arteries supply the cerebellum, brainstem and underside of the cerebrum.
• The two posterior and single anterior communicating arteries form the circle of Willis, equalizes blood pressures in the brain’s anterior and posterior regions and protects the brain from damage, should one of the arteries become occluded.
• There are little communication b/w smaller arteries on the brain’s surface, hence the occlusion of these arteries usually results in localized tissue damage.

 

Cell of the Brain

Brain is made up of two types of cells: Glia and nerve cells (neurons)

Nerve Cells (Neurons)

1. Structure

• Cell Body (Soma): Contains the nucleus and other organelles; integrates incoming signals.
• Dendrites: Branch-like structures that receive messages from other neurons.
• Axon: Long, slender projection that transmits electrical impulses away from the cell body to other neurons or muscles.

 

2. Function

• Signal Transmission: Neurons convey information through electrical and chemical signals.
• Electrical Signals: Travel along the axon as action potentials.
• Chemical Signals: Transmitted across synapses using neurotransmitters.

 

3. Synapse

• Definition: Tiny gap between neurons where communication occurs.
• Transmission:
  • Pre-Synaptic Neuron: Sends the signal. Neurotransmitters are released from sacs (vesicles) at the axon terminal.
  • Post-Synaptic Neuron: Receives the signal. Neurotransmitters cross the synapse and bind to receptors on the dendrites of the next neuron.

 

4. Process

• Dendrite Reception: Dendrites pick up chemical messages from other neurons.
• Integration: The cell body processes these messages and decides if they should be passed on.
• Action Potential: If the message is significant, an electrical impulse travels down the axon.
• Neurotransmitter Release: At the axon terminal, neurotransmitters are released into the synapse.
• Signal Reception: Neurotransmitters cross the synapse and bind to receptors on the receiving neuron, continuing the message.

 

5. Analogy

• Electrical Wiring: Like electrical wiring in a home, where wires carry electricity to power a light bulb, neurons carry electrical impulses to transmit signals.

 

Glial Cell

Glia cells, derived from the Greek word meaning “glue,” provide essential support to neurons in the brain. They outnumber neurons by a factor of 10 to 50 and play crucial roles in maintaining brain health and function. They are also commonly involved in brain tumors.

1. Astrocytes (Astroglia)

• Regulate the blood-brain barrier, allowing the selective exchange of nutrients and molecules with neurons.
• Maintain homeostasis by balancing ions and neurotransmitters in the brain environment.
• Assist in neuronal defense and repair processes.
• Involved in scar formation following brain injury.
• Influence electrical impulses and synaptic activity.

Structure: Star-shaped with numerous branching processes that interact with neurons and blood vessels.

 

2. Oligodendrocytes (Oligodendroglia)

• Produce myelin, a fatty substance that insulates axons.
• Myelin sheath increases the speed of electrical message transmission along axons.

Structure: Small cells with fewer processes compared to astrocytes; each oligodendrocyte can myelinate multiple axons.

 

3. Ependymal Cells

• Line the ventricles of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord.
• Secrete cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and help circulate it through the ventricles and around the brain and spinal cord.

Structure: Ciliated cells forming a thin layer that lines the ventricular system.

 

4. Microglia

• Act as the brain’s immune cells, defending against pathogens and removing debris from damaged or dead cells.
• Engage in synaptic pruning, which helps refine neural connections by eliminating excess or unused synapses.

Structure: Small cells with multiple branching processes that can move through the brain tissue to perform their functions.

 

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q1. Where is brain located?

Ans. The brain is housed inside the bony covering called the cranium. The cranium protects the brain from injury. Together, the cranium and bones that protect the face are called the skull. Between the skull and brain is the meninges, which consist of three layers of tissue that cover and protect the brain and spinal cord.

 

Q2. Which part of the brain controls memory?

Ans. The functions of memory are carried out by the hippocampus and other related structures in the temporal lobe.
Location: Located within the temporal lobe, part of the limbic system.
Function: Critical for the formation of new memories and spatial navigation. Essential for converting short-term memories into long-term memories.

 

Q3. What are the functions of the left and right brain?

Ans. The left brain is more verbal, analytical, and orderly than the right brain. It’s sometimes called the digital brain because it’s better at things like reading, writing, and computations. On the other hand, the right brain is more visual, intuitive, and creative.

Artificial intelligence (AI)is the field of dedicating to creating machines that can mimic human cognitive abilities such as learning and problem-solving through algorithms or of rules. AI systems are designed to anticipate issues and address them in an intelligent adaptive way. They excel at recognizing patterns and relationships in extensive and varied datasets. For instance, AI can synthesize a patient care complete medical history into single number that suggests a possible diagnosis. Additionally, AI systems continuously evolve and improve as they process more date.

AI encompasses several distinct subfields, including (machine learning) ML and deep learning algorithm (DL) which work individually or together to enhance application intelligence. Machine learning models involves algorithms that enable computers to automatically improve from experience. ML can be further divided into supervised learning, unsupervised learning, and reinforcement learning (RL).

Supervise learning uses labeled data to train algorithms such as using annotated X-ray images to identify tumors in new images. Unsupervised learning aims to discover patterns in unlabeled data, like grouping patients with similar symptoms to find common cause. Reinforcement learning allows algorithms to learn by trial and error or through expert guidance optimizing strategies to maximize rewards. Recent AI breakthroughs have heavily relied on RL.

Deep learning algorithm a subset of ML, involves complex algorithms that process data through numerous interconnected layers. This approach has become crucial in AI, driving advancements in field such as image and speech recognition.

 

How is AI Changing the Healthcare Industry?

The integration of artificial intelligence into healthcare industry has brought about remarkable advancements across several areas. AI systems excel at processing vast amounts of medical record, enabling rapid analysis to uncover trends, anomalies, and patterns that would be too complex or time-consuming for humans to identify.

This capability significantly enhances diagnostic accuracy for example, AI powered radiology tools can detect abnormalities in imaging scans with exceptional precision, leading to earlier and more accurate diagnosis.
Furthermore, AI contributes to personalized treatment planning by evaluating a range of factors including genetic information, lifestyle, previous health records, and current conditions, resulting in treatments tailored specifically to individual patients and potentially improving outcomes.

AI predictive analytics analytics can forecast health risk and disease progression by analyzing patient data patterns which is crucial for preventive care and managing chronic conditions.

Additionally, AI streamlines administrative tasks such as scheduling, billing, and patient record management, thereby boosting overall healthcare efficiency. Overall AI’s role in healthcare professional is transformative providing powerful tools that enhance data analysis, diagnostic, and treatment, and paving the way for more personalized and efficient healthcare delivery.

 

AI In Medical Imaging and Medical Diagnosis

AI integration in various areas of medical diagnosis has been a innovative change in the fields of medical analysis and predictive diagnostic.

 

Application of Deep Learning

Deep learning, a subset of AI utilizes neural networks that excel at processing and interpreting complex data sets. These networks are applied to images from X-rays, MRIs, and CT-scans, enhancing the analysis of medical imaging.

 

Enhanced Pattern Recognition

AI algorithms are specifically trained to detect abnormalities in medical images, identifying patterns that may not be visible to the human eye. This capability improves diagnostic accuracy especially for early disease detection.

 

Consistency and Speed

AI system provide consistent analysis unaffected by human factors like fatigue or subjective bias. They process images much faster than human radiologists leading to quicker diagnosis and timely treatments.

For example: AI has demonstrated notable success in detecting diseases such as breast cancer in mammograms and identifying lung nodules in chest X-rays.

 

Predictive Diagnostics

Data Analysis for Disease Prediction

Artificial intelligence tools extensive patient data, including medical history, vital signs, genetic information, lifestyle factors, and real time biometrics to predict disease risks.

 

Early Identification of Risk Factors

By identifying patterns and correlations in the data, AI can forecast the likelihood of diseases such as diabetes, heart attacks, or strokes before clinical symptoms appear.

 

Personalized Risk Assessments

Artificial intelligence provides personalized risk assessments enabling targeted preventative measures and early interventions based on individual patient data.

 

Continuous Monitoring and Learning

Artificial intelligence continuously improve their predictive accuracy by integrating new patient data, research findings and evolving health trends.

 

Artificial Intelligence in Pathology

1. In pathology AI is utilized to analyze tissue samples with greater precision than traditional methods. It examines cell patterns to identify disease indicators including cancer.
2. Artificial Intelligence has significantly improved the accuracy of diagnosing various cancers such as breast, lung, and skin cancer. It helps in distinguishing between benign and malignant tumors and assessing cancer severity.
3. The integration of AI in pathology labs automates and streamlines workflows reducing the workload of pathologists and allowing them to concentrate on more complex cases.

 

Artificial Intelligence in Treatment Management

AI advancement in healthcare sector revolutionize treatment methodologies and diagnostic procedures. There are three areas in which AI is making impact i.e. Treatment plan, Drug development and Robot-assisted surgery:

 

Personalized Treatment Plans

1. AI algorithms analyze a wide range of factors including a patient’s genetic profile, lifestyle, previous health records, and current health conditions. This comprehensive analysis facilitates the creation of highly individualized treatment options that cater specifically to each patient’s needs.
2. AI is adept at interpreting complex genetic data which can predict a patient’s susceptibility to certain diseases and their potential response to various treatments. This capability is particularly significant in oncology where cancer treatments can be customized based on genetic mutations.
3. In addition to genetic information AI system consider lifestyle and environmental factors offering a holistic approach to treatment planning. This broader perspective can lead to more effective management of chronic diseases such as diabetes and heart diseases.
4. Wearable health devices integrated with AI enable real-time monitoring of patient health. This continuous data collection allows for ongoing adjustments to treatment plans ensuring they remain effective and responsive to changes in the patient’s condition.

 

Drug Development

1. AI algorithms can process extensive biological and chemical data at unprecedented speeds significantly speeding up the drug discovery process. This acceleration helps in identifying potential new treatments more quickly.
2. AI models can predict how different drugs will interact with various diseases which aids in discovering new uses for existing drugs (drug repurposing) and in avoiding harmful drug interactions.
3. By enhancing the efficiency of the drug development process AI helps lower the overall costs and time required facilitating faster access to new treatments for patients.
4. AI can improve the design of clinical trials, assist in identifying suitable candidates and monitor trial progress. This optimization enhances the efficacy and safety of new drugs making clinical trials more effective.

 

Robotic-Assisted Surgery

1. AI-powered robotic systems provide surgeons with greater precision and control during procedures. These robots enable complex surgeries to be performed with minimal invasiveness which is particularly advantageous in fields such as neurosurgery and orthopedics.
2. AI improves surgical visualization by providing detailed 3D models of the patients anatomy. This advanced visualization aids in planning and navigating complex surgical procedures leading to better outcomes.
3. Surgeries assisted by AI-driven robots typically result in smaller incisions, reduced blood loss, and a lower risk of infection. These factors contribute to shorter recovery times and quicker hospital discharges.
4. AI driven simulations allow surgeons to practice and refine their skills in a virtual environment. This training enhances their proficiency and enhancing surgical precision. AI contributions are pivotal in creating a more tailored, efficient and advanced medical treatment landscape.

 

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q1. What is the future of AI in healthcare?

Ans. The use of AI, inclusive of Generative AI, in healthcare is evolving rapidly and has the ‘potential to enhance healthcare outcomes by improving clinical trials, medical diagnosis and treatment, self-management of care, and personalized care.

 

Q2. What is the use of artificial intelligence in therapy?

Ans. When people come to them with a given problem or stressor, these bots respond in ways a real therapist might — they ask questions, suggest coping mechanisms, set goals and offer to hold users accountable. In some cases, they use AI to track, analyze and monitor the person’s mood, mimicking a human therapist.

 

Q3. What AI is used in medicine?

Ans. AI is primarily utilized to increase speed and accuracy in the healthcare realm. Some of the current uses of AI in this field include Diagnosing Patients: AI algorithms analyze medical imaging data, such as X-rays, MRIs, and CT scans, to assist healthcare professionals in accurate and swift diagnoses.

 

Q4. How is AI being used in robotic surgery?

Ans. In robotic surgery evaluating surgical skills for basic surgical skills, algorithms can be trained on robotic system data consisting of kinematic, intraoperative events and video data, in combination with postoperative outcomes, to develop automated performance metrics and predict intraoperative performance.

Digestion is defined as the process by which food is broken down into simple chemical substances that can be absorbed and used as nutrients by the body. All the living organisms require nutritive substances and water for survival and growth.

Most of the substances in the diet cannot be utilized as such. These substances must be broken into smaller particles. Then only these substances can be absorbed into blood and distributed to various parts of the body for utilization.

The digestion process is accomplished by mechanical and enzymatic breakdown of foods into smaller chemical compounds. A normal young healthy adult consumes about one kg of solid diet and about 1-2 liters of liquid diet every day. All these food materials are subjected to digestive process before being absorbed into blood and distributed to the tissues of the body.

The digestive system plays major role in the digestion and absorption of the system plays the major role in the digestion and absorption of food substances. Thus, the function of digestive system include:

• Ingestion or consumption of food substances
• Breaking them into small particles
• Transport of the small particles to different areas of the digestive tract
• Secretion of necessary enzymes and other substances for digestion
• Digestion of the food particles
• Absorption of the digestive products
• Removal of unwanted substances from the body

 

Functional Anatomy of the Digestive System

Digestive System is made up of gastrointestinal tract or alimentary canal and accessory organs, which help in the process of digestion and absorption.

GI tract is a tubular structure extending from the mouth up to anus with a length of about 30 feet. It opens to the external environment on both ends. GI tract is formed by two types of organs:

1. Primary Digestive Organs: This is where the actual digestion takes place. Primary Digestive organs are:

• Mouth
• Pharynx
• Esophagus
• Stomach
• Small intestine
• Large intestine

2. Accessory Digestive Organs: It helps primary digestive organs in the process of digestion. The accessory digestive organs are:

• Teeth
• Tongue
• Salivary glands
• Exocrine part of pancreas
• Liver
• Gallbladder

 

Tongue

• Functions: Taste, speech, mastication, deglutition
• External Features: Root, tip, vertical surface, dorsal surface, 2 lateral borders
• Dorsal Surface: Covered by mucous membrane with papillae in anterior 2/3rd and lingual tonsil in posterior 1/3rd.
• Ventral Surface: Smooth
• Muscles: Intrinsic (superior longitudinal, inferior longitudinal, transverse, vertical), extrinsic (genioglossus, hyoglossus, styloglossus, palatoglossus).
• Blood Supply: Lingual artery, venae comitantes, deep lingual vein, lingual vein.
• Lymphatic Drainage: Submental nodes, submandibular nodes, jugulo-omohyoid nodes.
• Nerve Supply: Motor-hyoglossal except palatoglossus by pharyngeal plexus sensory-general (lingual-anterior 2/3rd , glossopharyngeal-posterior 1/3rd ), special (chorda tympani-anterior 2/3rd, glossopharyngeal posterior 1/3rd ), posterior most part-vagus.

 

Salivary Glands

Features	Parotid Gland	Submandibular Gland	Sublingual Gland
Situation	Near external acoustic meatus	Diagastric triangle	Floor of mouth
Capsule	Investing layer of deep cervical fascia	Connective tissue	Connective tissue
External Features	Apex, surfaces (Base or superior, superficial, anteromedial), borders (anterior, posterior, medial)	Superficial, deep parts	—
Structures in Gland	Arteries (External carotid, maxillary superficial temporal), veins (Maxillary superficial temporal, retromandibular), facial nerve with its branches	—	—
Duct	Opens into vestibule of mouth opposite upper second molar tooth	Opens into floor of mouth	Opens into floor of mouth
Blood Supply	External carotid artery, jugular vein	Facial and lingual arteries, facial and lingual veins	Facial and lingual arteries, facial and lingual veins
Nerve Supply	—	—	—
Parasympathetic	Glossopharyngeal – otic ganglion- auriculotemporal	Facial- chorda-tympani- submandibular ganglion-lingual	Facial- chorda-tympani- submandibular ganglion-lingual
Sympathetic	Plexus around external carotid artery	Plexus around facial artery	Plexus around facial artery
Sensory	Auriculotemporal nerve	Lingual nerve	Lingual nerve

 

Different Parts of Digestive System

Organs	External Features	Blood Supply	Nerve Supply
Pharynx	Parts (Nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx), muscles (Constrictors (superior, middle, inferior), longitudinal (Stylopharyngeus, palatopharyngeus, salpingopharyngeus)	External carotid and maxillary arteries, facial and internal jugular veins	Motor (Pharyngeal plexus except stylopharyngeus by glossopharyngeal nerve), sensory (Glossopharyngeal nerve)
Esophagus	25cm long, extends from cricoid cartilage to stomach, constrictions (From incisor teeth 6 inched, 9 inches, 11 inches, 15 inches)	Arteries (Inferior thyroid, esophageal branches, left gastric) Veins (Brachiocephalic, azygos, left gastric)	Parasympathetic (Recurrent laryngeal, esophageal), sympathetic (Middle cervical ganglion, upper 4 thoracic ganglia)
Stomach	Situation: Epigastric, umbilical, hypochondriac regions. Two orifices: Cardiac, pyloric Two curvatures: lesser, greater Two surfaces: Anterior (liver, diaphragm, left kidney, left suprarenal, pancreas, transverse mesocolon, splenic flexure of colon, splenic artery)	Arteries: Left gastric, right gastric, left gastroepiploic, right gastroepiploic, short gastric Veins: Superior mesenteric, portal, splenic Lymphatic: Pancreatic splenic, left gastric, right gastroepiploic, splenic, hepatic, pyloric nodes	Sympathetic: T6-T10 spinal segments Parasympathetic: Vagus
Duodenum	Shortest small intestine. 10 inches long. Extent: Pylorus to duodenojejunal flexure 4 parts: first/superior, second/ vertical/descending, third/ horizontal, fourth/ ascending	Arteries: Superior and inferior pancreaticoduodenal Veins: Splenic, superior mesenteric, portal Lymphatics: Pancreaticoduodenal	Sympathetic: T9, T10 spinal segments Parasympathetic: Vagus
Jejunum	Forms upper 2/5th of small intestine. Suspended from fold of mesentery, 1-2 arterial arcades, longer and few vasa recta Extent: Distal jejunum to ileocecal junction. Thick and more vascular walls.	Artery: Superior mesenteric Vein: Superior mesenteric Lymphatics: Superior mesenteric nodes	Sympathetic: T9, T10 spinal segments Parasympathetic: Vagus
Ileum	Forms upper 3/5th of small intestine. Suspended from fold of mesentery, 3-6 arterial arcades, short and more vasa recta Extent: Distal jejunum to ileocecal junction. Thick and more vascular walls	Artery: Superior mesenteric Vein: Superior mesenteric Lymphatics: Superior mesenteric nodes	Sympathetic: T9, T10 spinal segments Parasympathetic: Vagus
Large Intestine	Extent: Ileocecal junction to anus. 1.5 cm long Parts: Cecum and appendix, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, anal canal Taenia coli: thickened longitudinal muscle coats Haustrations/ sacculations: Out pocketing of wall Appendices epiploicae: Appendices epiploicae: Small bags of fats	Arteries: Superior mesenteric Vein: Superior mesenteric Lymphatics: Superior mesenteric nodes	Sympathetic: T11- L1 spinal segments upto right 2/3rd of transverse colon rest by L1, L2 spinal segments Parasympathetic: Vagus upto right 2/3rd rest by pelvic splanchnic
Cecum	Blind pouch in right iliac fossa. Types: Conical (appendix at apex), funicular (appendix in depression at the center), (appendix in depression at the center), ampullary (appendix at one side)	Arteries: Cecal branches of ileocolic Veins: superior mesenteric	Sympathetic: T11-L1 spinal segments Parasympathetic: Vagus
Appendix	Arises in the posteromedial wall of cecum. 9 cm long Position: Paracolic/11 O’clock, retrocaecal/12 O’clock, splenic/2 O’ clock, sacral/promontoric/3 O’clock, pelvic/ 4 O’clock, midinguinal/6 O’clock	Artery: Appendicular Veins: Appendicular, ileocolic, superior mesenteric Lymphatic: Ileocolic nodes	Sympathetic: T9, T10 spinal segments Parasympathetic: Vagus
Rectum	Extent: Sigmoid colon to anorectal junction, 12 cm long, Curvatures: 2 anteroposterior, 3 lateral	Artery: superior and middle rectal, median sacral Veins: superior and middle rectal Lymphatic: internal iliac nodes	Sympathetic: L1, L2 spinal segments Parasympathetic: S2-S4
Anal Canal	3.8 cm long, 3 parts Upper part: 15mm, mucous membrane thrown into folds (anal columns), attached at lower ends by anal valves (pectinate line), anal sinus is in between anal columns Middle part: 15mm, dense venous plexus Lower part: 8 mm, skin with glands and hair White line of Hilton: Junction between mucous membrane (middle part) and skin (lower part) Sphincters: external, internal	Artery: Superior and inferior rectal Veins: Internal and External rectal venous plexus Lymphatic: Internal iliac and superficial inguinal nodes	Sympathetic: L1, L2 spinal segments Parasympathetic: S2-S4
Liver	The largest gland in the body secretes bile, helps in metabolism. Surfaces: Anterior, posterior, right, superior, inferior Lobes: Right, left, caudate, quadrate Porta hepatis: Portal vein, hepatic artery, right and left hepatic duct, hepatic plexus of nerves Ligaments: Falciform, right triangular, left triangular, coronary	Arteries: Hepatic artery, portal vein Veins: Hepatic sinusoid – interlobar veins – sublobar veins- hepatic veins- inferior vena cava Lymphatics: Hepatic, paracardial, celiac nodes	Sympathetic: Hepatic plexus Parasympathetic: Vagus
Pancreas	Partly exocrine and endocrine gland Extent: Duodenum to spleen Parts: Head, neck, body tail Ducts: Main pancreatic (duct of Wirsung), accessory pancreatic duct opens into major and minor duodenal papilla.	Arteries: Branches of splenic, superior and inferior Pancreaticoduodenal Veins: Splenic vein Lymphatics: Pancreatic splenic, celiac, superior mesenteric nodes	Sympathetic: Splanchnic nerves Parasympathetic: Vagus

 

Different Parts of Digestive System and its Functions

Organ	Function
Pharynx	The pharynx directs air from your nose and mouth to the larynx (voice box) which then passes air to the trachea and lungs. It also channels food and liquids to the esophagus, which sends them to your stomach. Additionally, the pharynx helps prevent food and liquid from entering your trachea and lungs.
Esophagus	The esophagus is a muscular tube that functions to transport food and liquids from the mouth to the stomach. It moves these substances through a series of coordinated muscle contractions called peristalsis.
Stomach	Reservoir of food. Softens and mixes the food with the gastric juice. Gastric glands produce gastric juice, HCL.
Duodenum	Duodenum is the first part of the small intestine and plays a crucial role in digestion. Its primary functions are: Chemical Digestion Neutralization Nutrient Absorption
Jejunum	Jejunum is the middle section of the small intestine, located between the duodenum and the ileum. Its primary functions include: Nutrient Absorption Digestion Continuation Formation of Chyme
Ileum	Ileum is the final section of the small intestine, located between the jejunum and the large intestine. Its primary functions include: Nutrient Absorption Reabsorption of Bile Acids Immune Function
Large Intestine	Absorption of water and storage of matter reaching it from the small intestine. Bacteria present in the large intestine helps to synthesize Vitamin B.
Cecum	Cecum is the first part of the large intestine, located in the lower right abdomen where the small intestine meets the large intestine. Its primary functions include: Receiving Chyme Initial Absorption Bacterial Fermentation Appendix Attachment
Appendix	Appendix is a small, tube-like structure attached to the cecum of the large intestine. Its function include: Immune Function Gut Flora Reservoir Developmental Role
Rectum	Rectum is the final section of the large intestine, leading from the sigmoid colon to the anus. Its primary functions include: Storage Fecal Formation Defecation
Anal Canal	Anal canal is the final segment of the digestive tract, located between the rectum and the anus. Its primary functions include: Fecal Expulsion Sphincter Control
Liver	Liver is a vital organ with wide range of functions, including: Metabolism Detoxification Bile Production Synthesis of Proteins Regulation of Blood Sugar Immune Function
Pancreas	Pancreas is vital organ with both endocrine and exocrine functions: Endocrine Function: Insulin production, Glucagon production. Exocrine Function: Digestive enzyme production, Bicarbonate production.

 

Frequently Asked Question (FAQs)

Q1. What role do smooth muscles play in digestion?

Ans. Smooth muscles in the digestive tract help move food through peristalsis, ensuring it progresses from the esophagus to the stomach and intestines.

 

Q2. How does the gall bladder contribute to digestion?

Ans. The gall bladder stores and concentrates bile, which is released into the small intestine to aid in the chemical breakdown of fats.

 

Q3. What happens to undigested food in the digestive system?

Ans. Undigested food moves into the large intestine, where water is absorbed, and the remaining material is eventually expelled as stool during bowel movements.

 

Q4. How do pancreatic enzymes aid digestion?

Ans. Pancreatic enzymes, such as amylase and lipase, break down carbohydrates and fats in the small intestine, facilitating the absorption of amino acids and other nutrients.

 

Q5. What is the function of the esophageal sphincter?

Ans. The esophageal sphincter controls the passage of food from the esophagus to the stomach, preventing acid reflux and ensuring proper digestion.

The Medical Counselling Committee (MCC) has announced the schedule for NEET UG Counselling 2024, which will commence on August 14,2024. The detailed counselling schedule has been released, and the MCC has requested all medical colleges to submit their MBBS seat matrices by July 20 via the official portal.

Candidates who have successfully passed the NEET exam are eligible to participate in the NEET UG Counselling 2024 through the official website. The counselling process will be conducted in multiple counselling rounds to allocate seats in MBSS, BDS, AYUSH, and Veterinary courses.

Stay tuned for the latest updates on NEET Counselling 2024, including eligibility criteria, required documents, registration counselling fees, the counselling process and detailed instructions on how to apply.

 

NEET-UG 2024 Counselling Schedule (Central and State Counselling)

The NEET 2024 exam took place on May 5, 2024, with the initial results announced on June 4, 2024. Following a re-evaluation, the NTA released the revised results on July 26, 2024. Based on this timeline, NEET 2024 counselling is anticipated to commence shortly approximately a month after the results are finalized. The counselling process is expected to extend over four to five months and may include up to six rounds, depending on the number of available seats.

The Medical Counselling Committee (MCC) operating under the Directorate General of Health Services (DGHS), will manage the counselling dates for NEET 2024. This includes the allocation of 1,09,145 MBBS seats and 27,868 BDS seats across India. Additionally, 1,000 B.sc Nursing seats will also be allocated through the MCC NEET counselling process.

NEET UG 2024 Counselling Procedure Overview
Country	India
Conducting Organization	Medical Counselling Committee (MCC)
Counselling	NEET UG 2024
Course Offered	MBBS and BDS courses
Academic Year	2024-25
NEET 2024 Counselling Registration Date	14 August, 2024
NEET 2024 Counselling Registration Fee	Rs.1000/for General/OBC/EWS candidates, Rs.500/for SC/ST/PwD candidates
NEET 2024 Counselling Eligibility Criteria	Candidates must have qualified NEET UG 2024 and meet the specifies age criteria
NEET 2024 Counselling Process	Registration Choice Filling Seat Allotment Uploading of Documents College Reporting
NEET 2024 Counselling Duration	Four to five months with approximately six rounds based on the number of vacant seats
Seat Availability	1,09,145 MBBS, 27,868 BDS, and around 1,000 Bsc Nursing seats allocated through MCC NEET counselling

 

NEET UG Counselling 2024 Schedule (Round-wise)

The tables below presents the tentative months for the NEET 2024 Counselling events:

Round 1 Counselling Schedule

Events	Date
Verification of Tentative Seat Matrix by the Participating Institutes and NMC	14th Aug – 16th Aug 2024
Registration/Payment	14th Aug – 2oth Aug 2024 (Payment till 20th Aug, 12:00 PM)
Choice Filling	16th Aug – 20th Aug 2024
Choice Locking	Locking till 20th Aug, 11:55 PM
Processing of Seat Allotment	21st Aug – 22nd Aug 2024
Counselling Result	23rd Aug 2024
Reporting/Joining at College	24th Aug – 29th Aug 2024
Verification of Joined Candidates Data by Institutes	30th Aug – 31st Aug 2024

 

Round 2 Counselling Schedule

Events	Date
Verification of Tentative Seat Matrix by the Participating Institutes	4th Sept – 5th Sept 2024
Registration/Payment	5th Sept – 10th Sept 2024 (Payment till 10th Sept, 12:00 PM)
Choice Filling	6th Sept – 10th Sept 2024
Choice Locking	Locking till 10th Sept, 11:55 PM
Processing of Seat Allotment	11th Sept – 12th Sept 2024
Counselling Result	13th Sept 2024
Reporting/Joining at College	14th Sept – 20th Sept 2024
Verification of Joined Candidates Data by Institutes	21st Sept – 22nd Sept 2024

 

Round 3 Counselling Schedule

Events	Date
Verification of Tentative Seat Matrix by the Participating Institutes	25th Sept – 26th Sept 2024
Registration/Payment	26th Sept – 2nd Oct 2024 (Payment till 2nd Oct, 12:00 PM)
Choice Filling	27th Sept – 2nd Oct 2024
Choice Locking	Locking till 2nd Oct, 11:55 PM
Processing of Seat Allotment	3rd Oct – 4th Oct 2024
Counselling Result	5th Oct 2024
Reporting/Joining at College	6th Oct – 12th Oct 2024
Verification of Joined Candidates Data by Institutes	13th Oct – 15th Oct 2024

 

Stray Vacancy Round Counselling Schedule

Events	Date
Verification of Tentative Seat Matrix by the Participating Institutes	16th Oct 2024
Registration/Payment	16th Oct – 20th Oct 2024 (Payment till 20th Oct, 12:00 PM)
Choice Filling	17th Oct – 20th Oct 2024
Choice Locking	Locking till 20th Oct, 11:55 PM
Processing of Seat Allotment	21st Oct – 22nd Oct 2024
Counselling Result	23rd Oct 2024
Reporting/Joining at College	24th Oct – 30th Oct 2024

 

NEET UG 2024 Counselling Eligibility Criteria

This table outlines the eligibility requirements for NEET 2024 Counselling, ensuring that all candidates have a clear understanding of the criteria they must meet to participate.

Eligibility Criteria	Details
Qualifying Marks	General Category: Candidates must achieve at least the 50th percentile in NEET-UG 2024. SC/ST/OBC Categories: Candidates must attain a minimum of the 40th percentile. Candidates with Benchmark Disabilities: Candidates must secure at least the 45th percentile in NEET-UG 2024.
Nationality	Indian citizens, Non-Resident Indians (NRIs), Overseas Citizens of India (OCIs), and Persons of Indian Origin (PIOs) are eligible.
Cut-off	The NEET 2024 cut-off determines eligibility for both the 85% State Quota and the 15% All India Quota (AIQ) seats. Candidates who meet or exceed the NEET 2024 cut-off must register for counselling to be considered for seat allocation.

 

How to Apply for NEET UG 2024 Counselling

Follow these step-by-step instructions to apply for NEET UG 2024 counselling:

• Visit the MCC Website: Go to https://mcc.nic.in/.
• Open the Navigation Menu: Click on the menu icon to access the navigation options.
• Select “UG Medical”: Choose “UG Medical” from the menu.
• Go to “Important Links”: Navigate to the “Important Links” section.
• Click on “Registration”: Find and click the “Registration” link.
• Enter Your Details: Fill in the required basic details in the registration form.
• Complete Registration: Follow the provided instructions to complete the registration process.
• Proceed to Choice Filling: After registering move on to the choice filling and locking stage.
• Select Preferences: Choose your preferred colleges and courses based on availability and your eligibility.
• Lock and Submit: Finalize your choices lock your selections, and submit your preferences.

NEET-UG 2024 Counselling Fee

Eligible Candidates are required to submit two kinds of tuition fees (Non-Refundable Registration Fee and Refundable Security Amount) at the time of registration for the counselling.

For 15% All India Quota/Central Universities (DU, AMU, BHU, and Jamia Millia Islamia, Delhi)/AFMC& ESI/All AIIMS/JIPMER/B.Sc. Nursing:

• Non-Refundable Registration Fee: Rs. 1000/- for UR/EWS candidates & Rs. 500/- For SC/ ST/ OBC/ PwD candidates.
• Refundable Security Amount: Rs.10,000/- for UR/EWS candidates & Rs. 5,000/- for SC/ST/OBC/PwD candidates.

Example,

Any UR candidate opting for Central Universities/AFMC/ ESI will pay Rs. 1000 + Rs. 10,000= Rs. 11,000 at the time of registration.

Any SC/ST/OBC/PwD candidate will pay Rs. 500 + Rs.5,000 = Rs. 5,500 at the time of registration.

 

For Deemed Universities:

• Non-Refundable Registration Fee: Rs. 5000/- (same for all candidates)
• Refundable Security Amount: Rs. 2, 00,000/-

Example,

Any candidate opting for Deemed University will have to pay Rs 5000/- Non-Refundable fee + Rs 2,00,000/- Refundable security amount at the time of at the time of registration.

 

List of Open Seats-Domicile Free

Open seats-domicile free includes:

• 15% All India Quota seats MBBS/BDS Seats of States
• 100% MBBS/BDS Seats of BHU OPEN
• AIIMS Open seats- 100% MBBS Seats of AIIMS across India
• JIPMER Open Seats (Puducherry/Karaikal)
• AMU Open Seats
• 15% All India Quota Seats of DU/IP University (VMMC/ABVIMS/ESIC Dental)
• Jamia Open Seats- Faculty of Dentistry (Jamia Milia Islamia)
• 15% All India Quota Seats of ESIC

 

List of Documents Required at the time of Joining/Reporting in Allotted Medical/Dental/Nursing College

• Allotment Letter issued by MCC
• Admit Cards of Exam issued by NTA
• Result/Rank letter issued by NTA
• Date of Birth Certificate (if Metric Certificate does not bear the same)
• Class 10th Certificate
• Class 10+2 Certificate and Marksheet
• Eight (8) Passport size photographs same as affixed on the application form
• Proof of identity (Aadhar/PAN/Driving Licence/Passport)
• SC/ST Certificate (if applicable)
• OBC-NCL as per Central List certificate (if applicable)
• Disability Certificate issued from a duly constituted and authorized Medical Board in an online format by the designated centres as per NMC norms (if applicable)
• EWS Certificate (if applicable)

For NRI candidates following essential documents are mandatory:

• Passport copy of sponsor, embassy certificate.
• Sponsorship affidavit (stating that the sponsor is ready to bear the expenses for the whole duration of the study).
• Relationship Affidavit (Relation of Candidate with the sponsor).

Everything is made for a defined purpose anything which is not intended for further use is termed waste. In the scientific and industrial eras combined with the increasing population, the turnover of products has gone very high increasing the quantum of urban solid waste. With the increased need for health care in a changing society the role of hospitals/nursing homes comes to the forefront.

Hospital waste or types of healthcare waste should include any material generated in healthcare establishments including aqueous and other liquid waste.

Hospital waste means any solid, fluid, or liquid waste material including its container and any other intermediate product which is generated during short-term and long-term care consisting of observational, diagnostic, therapeutic, and rehabilitative services for a person suffering or suspected to be suffering from disease or injury and for parturient or during research of production and testing of biological during immunization of human being.

Types of Healthcare waste facilities are responsible for managing healthcare waste generated within their facilities, as well as waste generated through activities in the community. These facilities must undertake proper segregation, collection, in-house transportation, pre-treatment, and waste storage before handing it over to a Common Bio-medical Waste Treatment Facility (CBWTF) operator.

Therefore, proper management of healthcare waste at these facilities necessitates that all categories of staff understand and adhere to the technical requirements for waste handling as per the Biomedical Waste Management Rules, 2016.

 

Classifications of Waste Generated from Healthcare Sectors

1. Bio-Medical Waste

It refers to any waste produced during diagnosis, treatment, or immunization of humans or animals as well as related research activities, or during the production or testing of biologicals in health camps. This includes all waste from healthcare facilities that could potentially harm human health or the environment if improperly disposed of. Such waste is considered infectious and must be managed according to the Biomedical Waste Management Rules of 2016 to prevent adverse effects on health or the environment.

Around 10% to 15% of the total waste generated by healthcare facilities constitutes biomedical waste. This category includes materials that have come into contact with patients’ blood, secretions, infected body parts, biological fluids, chemicals, medical equipment, pharmaceutical waste, laboratory discharge, sharp objects like needles and glassware, and plastics.

According to the Biomedical Waste Management Rules of 2016, this waste is categorized into four types based on how it is segregated and color-coded. Each category includes specific types of biomedical waste, as given below:

• Yellow Category
• Red Category
• White Category
• Blue Category

These categories are divided as per the types of waste under each category as follows:

Category	Type of Waste
Yellow	Human Anatomical Waste Human tissues, organs, body parts, and fetus below the viability period (as per the Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act 1971, amended from time to time).
	Animal Anatomical Waste Experimental animal carcasses, body parts, organs, and tissues, including the waste generated from animals used in experiments or testing in veterinary hospitals or colleges, or animal houses.
	Solid Waste Items contaminated with blood, body fluids like dressings, plaster casts, cotton swabs, and bags containing residual or discarded blood and blood components.
	Discarded Medicine Pharmaceutical waste like antibiotics, and cytotoxic drugs including all items contaminated with cytotoxic drugs along with glass or plastic ampoules, and vials. Etc.
	Chemical Waste Chemicals used in the production of biological and used or discarded disinfectants.
	Chemical Liquid Waste Liquid waste is generated due to the use of chemicals in the production of biological and used or discarded disinfectants, Silver X-ray film developing liquid, discarded Formalin, infected secretions, aspired body fluids, liquid from laboratories, and floor washings, cleaning, housekeeping and disinfecting activities, etc.
	Discarded linen, mattresses, beddings contaminated with blood or body fluid, routine mask & gown.
	Microbiology, Biotechnology, and other clinical laboratory waste (Pre-treated)
	Microbiology, Biotechnology, and other clinical laboratory waste: Blood bags, laboratory cultures, stocks or specimens of microorganisms, live or attenuated vaccines, human and animal cell cultures used in research, industrial laboratories, production of biological, residual toxins, dishes, and devices used for cultures.
Red	Wastes are generated from disposable items such as tubing, bottles, intravenous tubes and sets, catheters, urine bags, syringes without needles, fixed needle syringes with their needles cut, vacutainers, and gloves.
White	Waste Sharps Including Metals Needles, syringes with fixed needles, needles from needle tip cutters or burners, scalpels, blades, or any other contaminated sharp object that may cause punctures and cuts. This includes both used, discarded, and contaminated metal sharps.
Blue	Broken or discarded and contaminated glass including medicine vials and ampoules except those contaminated with cytotoxic wastes.

 

2. General Waste

General waste includes all waste other than biomedical waste that has not been in contact with hazardous waste or infectious materials, chemicals, or biological secretions, and does not include sharp objects. This type of waste typically includes:

• Newspaper, paper, and cardboard boxes
• Plastic water bottles
• Aluminum cans from soft drinks
• Packaging materials
• Food containers after removing leftover food
• Organic or biodegradable waste, mainly food waste
• Construction and demolition waste

These general wastes are classified as wet wastes and dry wastes and should be collected separately. The quantity of general waste is around 85% to 90% of the total generated from the facility.

 

3. Other Wastes

Other wastes include electronic devices such as batteries and radioactive materials that are not classified as biomedical waste. They must be disposed of according to specific regulations: the E-waste (Management) Rules of 2016, the Batteries ( Management & Handling) Rules of 2001, and the rules or guidelines established under the Atomic Energy Act of 1962, depending on the type of waste generated.

 

Guidelines for Management of Healthcare Waste Categories as per Biomedical Waste Management Rules, 2016

Figure 1: Categorization & Classifications of Wastes in Health Care Facilities.

 

Color Coding and 4 types of dustbins in hospitals used for Waste Segregation & Collection

According to Schedule I of the Bio-Medical Waste Management Rules of 2016, healthcare facilities (HCFs) must use specific color-coded dustbins and types of containers/bags for segregating and collecting biomedical waste generated within the facility.

Category	Type of Waste	Colored Container & Type of Container	Treatment Options as per Schedule I
Yellow Category	Animal Anatomical Waste Human Anatomical Waste Discarded or Expired Medicine Microbiology, Biotechnology, and other clinical laboratory waste Chemical Waste (yellow-e) Chemical Liquid Waste	Yellow-colored non-chlorinated Plastic Bags. NOTE: Chemical waste (yellow-e) comprising unused, residual, or date-expired liquid chemicals including spent hypo of X-Ray, should be stored in a yellow container.	Incineration/deep burial
Red Category	Contaminated Waste (Recyclable)	Red Colored Non-Chlorinated Plastic Bags (having thickness equal to more than 50u) and containers.	Autoclaving/microwaving/chemical treatment
White Category	Waste Sharps including metals	White Colored translucent puncture-proof, leak-proof, tamper-proof containers.	Autoclaving/microwaving/chemical treatment and destruction/shredding
Blue Category	Glassware Metallic Implants	Puncture-proof, leak-proof boxes or containers with blue-colored markings.	Disposal of wastes and secured landfill

 

Bio-Medical Waste Collection

Time of Collection

• Daily Collection: Ensure daily collection from each hospital ward at fixed intervals.
• Timing Adjustments: Schedule collections based on waste generation patterns throughout the day.
• Separate Collection: Avoid collecting general waste concurrently with biomedical waste.
• Visitor Waste Management: Collect general waste immediately after visiting hours to prevent accumulation.
• Personal Protective Equipment: Provide PPE to staff handling biomedical waste.

Packaging

• Filling and Sealing: Fill biomedical waste bags and sharp containers up to three-quarters full and seal them promptly.
• Sealing Methods: Use ties or plastic tags to seal bags to avoid stapling.
• Availability of Replacement: Ensure replacement bags or containers are readily available at collection points.
• Labeling Requirements: Label bags and containers with biohazard symbols, including details like date, type of waste, quantity, and sender’s and receiver’s information.
• Barcode Compliance: Affix barcoded labels on the bag as per CPCB guidelines.

 

Labeling

• Biohazard Symbols: Clearly label all bags, containers, and bins with biohazard or cytotoxic symbols as per BMWM Rules, 2016.

Interim Storage

• Minimization: Discourage interim storage of biomedical waste in patient care areas.
• Designated Areas: Store biomedical waste temporarily in designated, low-traffic areas if necessary.

 

Treatment Option for Bio-medical Waste Types

Treatment Options	Biomedical Chemical Processes
Thermal Processes Low-heat Systems (93-177oC)	Autoclave: steam disinfection Microwave: moist heat and steam from microwave energy
High-heat Systems	Incinerator: combustion and high-temperature plasma. Hydroclaving: like incineration but at a lower temperature.
Mechanical Processes	Compaction: reduce volume. Shredding: destroy plastic and paper waste to prevent reuse.
Irradiation Processes	Exposure to ultraviolet or ionizing radiation. Require post shredding to render waste unrecognizable.
Biological Processes	Use biological enzymes to treat waste. Claim to decontaminate and destroy organic constituents.
Considerations for Processing Incineration	Design to achieve emission limits. No chemically treated waste with chlorinated disinfectants. Limit toxic metals in ash. Use only low-sulfur fuel.
Autoclaving	Dedicated autoclave for disinfection. Time, temperature, and pressure must meet stipulated limits.
Microwaving	Not for hazardous waste or radioactive waste. Must kill bacteria and pathogens at maximum capacity.
Deep Burial	Pit 2m deep, half-filled with waste. Cover with lime and soil. Close and dedicated supervision.
Sharp Materials Disposal	Circular or rectangular pits lined with masonry or concrete. Cover with concrete slab and galvanized pipe.
Radioactive Waste	Store until radioactivity is low. Expert advice for discarding radioactive equipment.
Mercury Control	Collect and store spilled mercury. Send to manufacturers. Waste with 50 ppm mercury is hazardous.

 

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q1. What is clinical waste, and how is it different from infectious waste?

Ans. Clinical waste includes all waste generated from medical facilities, including non-infectious materials like packaging and expired medications, whereas infectious waste refers to waste contaminated with pathogens, such as bacteria, viruses, or other microorganisms.

 

Q2. What are the proper disposal techniques for biomedical waste, particularly sharps waste?

Ans. Sharp waste like needles and scalpels, must be disposed of in puncture-proof containers specifically designed for sharps disposal. These types of containers are sealed and handled carefully to prevent injuries and potential infections during disposal.

 

Q3. How does improper medical waste management contribute to the spread of diseases?

Ans. Improper management of biohazardous waste can lead to contamination of the environment and increase the risk of spreading infectious diseases. Pathogens present in medical waste, if not managed correctly, can infect healthcare workers, patients, and the normal public.

 

Q4. What is some risk associated with inadequate handling of pathological waste?

Ans. Pathological waste which includes tissues, organs, and body parts, poses significant health risks if not properly managed. Exposure to such waste can lead to infections or exposure to hazardous chemicals used in treatments.

 

Q5. Why is it important for medical facilities to use appropriate medical waste containers?

Ans. Medical waste containers are designed to safely store and transport various types of medical waste, including biohazardous materials and sharps. Using proper containers minimizes the risk of accidental exposure and ensures compliance with regulations for safe disposal.

Embarking on the journey to secure a seat in a postgraduate medical program in India requires a deep understanding of the process of counselling for NEET PG 2024. This guide will walk you through every aspect, ensuring you are well-prepared to take the next step in your medical career and become successful medical graduates!

 

Why NEET PG 2024 Plays a Crucial Role?

NEET PG (National Eligibility cum Entrance Test for Postgraduate courses) is a national-level entrance exam for aspiring doctors seeking admission to MD, MS, and PG Diploma courses. This highly competitive exam evaluates candidates’ knowledge and aptitude, crucial for securing a seat in various medical institutions across India. The choices of colleges depends upon the seat allotment process, which is further dependent upon the NEET PG 2024 results and successful counselling rounds.

 

What are the Key Highlights of Counselling for NEET PG 2024?

NEET PG 2024 Exam Date

• It was earlier on June 23, 2024.
• At present, a crucial step has been taken. So, the admission journey of seats seem a little delayed. The new date yet to be declared.

 

Bodies for the Process of Counselling for NEET PG 2024

• All India Counseling: This counselling process is conducted by the Directorate General of Health Sciences (DGHS) on behalf of the National Medical Council (NMC).
• State Quota Counseling: This counselling process is managed by respective state authorities.

 

Seat Distribution

• All India Counseling: 50% of government seats, 100% of deemed and central university seats, ESIC, AFMC, AIIMS, and JIPMER seats.
• State Quota: 50% of government seats and 100% of private seats within the state.

 

What are the Types of NEET PG 2024 Counselling?

NEET PG Counselling MCC: The Centralized Counseling

Centralized counseling, conducted by MCC (Medical Counselling Committee), involves the seat allocation in government colleges across India. This counselling session ensures seats in the Govt. medical institutions. These seats are open to candidates from all states, based on their NEET PG ranks. Here, this selection process is for the Govt. based colleges.

 

The State Counselling

State counseling’s counselling process is managed by respective state governments/authorities, allocating seats reserved for candidates from their states. The seat allotment is based on NEET PG ranks and specific state eligibility criteria. Once the counselling schedule is out and counselling for seat allotment is done, the academic session can begin!

 

Who is Eligible for NEET PG Counselling 2024?

It is important for medical students to fulfil the eligibility criteria for counselling process. Availability of seats definitely are a factor in allocation of seats but before that, eligibility matters. To participate in counselling, eligibility plays a crucial role.

 

NEET PG 2024, Candidates Must Meet The Following Criteria

1. Educational Qualification

A recognized MBBS degree or Provisional MBBS Pass Certificate from a recognized institution is important. Also, don’t forget to keep these academic details safe for further counselling process. The counselling authorities always run after the verification of relevant documents and personal details.

2. Internship Completion

Completion of a one-year rotatory internship by a specified date is also required. A NEET PG qualified candidate must also be a successful intern!

3. NEET PG Score

Medical sciences are difficult until and unless it’s a passion. Passion is important for getting apt scores for admission. So, attain great scores!

But the eligibility says- get the minimum scores or minimum qualifying percentile in the NEET PG exam. This is just the eligibility criteria. Medical students must not lose hope to crack the medical courses with flying colours.

 

Summing Up Eligibility for NEET PG Counselling 2024

This year, the eligible candidates are who:

• Meet the minimum qualifying percentile.
• Have completed their MBBS degree and internship.
• Hold a valid NEET PG 2024 score.

 

What is the NEET PG 2024 Counseling Process? (Step-by-Step Guide for NEET PG Counselling)

The Events take place in the following order for Round 1, Round 2, and Round 3 before final step:

NEET PG 2024 Counselling Registration
⬇️
Choice Filling and Locking
⬇️
Counselling Result
⬇️
Reporting

 

Step 1: NEET PG 2024 Registration

If someone asks, how to apply for NEET PG counselling, just say- it’s easy and hassle-free! The first step is ‘Registration for Counselling’ on the official NEET PG 2024 counseling website (https://mcc.nic.in/). Use your NEET PG roll number and other required details to complete the online registration form. Fill in correct details, as there must be no discrepancies in application documents. Document verification is done at the later stages.

• Reach out to the official website of the Medical Counselling Committee (MCC). Counselling for admission to your own choice of colleges could begin with this.
• Choose ‘PG Medical Counselling’
• A fresh application process needs to be done. Exam registration would not count here.
• Pen down the login credentials and keep them safe.
• Next process involves logging in and filling in the application form
• Next, a candidate needs to enter the details, personal and academic both.
• Cross check the application form before submission and fee payment.
• Then finalise the application fee, and you are good to go!

 

Step 2: Payment of NEET PG Counselling Fees

After registering, candidates must pay the prescribed NEET PG counselling fees. The fee structure for NEET PG counseling is mentioned on the MCC website clearly.

 

Step 3: Choice Filling and Locking

Candidates must fill in their preferences for choice for college and choices of courses based on their ranks and eligibility. College authorities give seats in government colleges after students also fill up their preferences. Ensure you lock your choices before the deadline, as changes cannot be made afterwards.

 

Step 4: Seat Allotment

Counselling for seat allotment is a rigorous process. After that, when actual time of allotment of seats comes, students eagerly wait for that moment. Seat allotment lists are based on NEET PG ranks, preferences, and seat availability. The NEET PG counselling result is published on the official website.

What a dedicated process! Surely, medical field isn’t easy to crack. But with discipline and preparation strategy, medical professionals can always remain in the merit list!

 

Step 5: Reporting to Allotted Medical College

Candidates through with the counselling process and having name in the seat allotment list must report to the respective college within the stipulated time frame. Ensure you carry all necessary documents for verification process. Everything is planned and aligned by the authorities usually. However, with whatever happened recently, students must be prepared for everything. Usually there isn’t a delay but you may expect delays during verification for unavoidable reasons.

 

What are the Documents required for NEET PG 2024 Counseling?

• Valid ID Proof
• Birth Certificate
• NEET PG 2024 Admit Card Caste Certificate (if applicable)
• MBBS Marksheet & Degree Certificate
• NEET PG 2024 Admit Card
• NEET PG 2024 Score Card
• Internship Completion Certificate
• Disability Certificate (if applicable)
• Non-creamy layer certificate (if applicable)

 

What is the NEET PG 2024 Counseling Cut-off?

Only candidates who meet the NEET PG 2024 cut-off are eligible for counseling. Carry all your documents during scheduled counselling dates to avoid issues during counselling. The cut-off percentile is announced along with the NEET PG result.

For reference, the NEET PG 2023 cut-off was:

• Unreserved (UR): 50th percentile, 291 marks
• SC/ST/OBC: 40th percentile, 257 marks
• UR PWD: 45th percentile, 274 marks

 

What is the NEET PG Counseling Registration and Fees?

To participate, candidates must register online and pay the counseling fees as specified. The registration process involves filling out an application form and submitting preferences for colleges and courses.

 

Open States for NEET PG 2024 Counseling

Certain states allow candidates from other states to participate in their counseling process. Check the specific guidelines of each state to understand the eligibility and application procedures.

 

NEET PG Counseling Result

The result of the NEET PG counseling, including seat allotment, is released in multiple rounds. Candidates can check their allotment status on the official MCC website.

 

Conclusion

Navigating the NEET PG 2024 counseling process is critical for securing a postgraduate medical seat in India. By understanding the steps involved, eligibility criteria, and essential documents required, candidates can ensure a smooth and successful journey toward their MD or MS degree. With careful planning and timely action, achieving your dream of advanced medical education is well within reach.

 

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q1. What are the rounds in Counselling Process called?

Ans. There are total 4 rounds for All India Quota NEET PG 2024:

• Round One
• Round Two
• Mop-up Round
• and Stray Vacancy Round

There is no return of seats to respective states post round two.

 

Q2. What is the exam pattern of NEET PG 2024?

Ans. NEET PG has a 200 multiple-choice questions/ MCQs based exam pattern. It’s a computer based exam, some stating it an online mode paper, while calling it a ‘Digital Computer Based Exam’ is a much better thing to say.

The exam consists of 3.5 hours, where wrong answers get negative marking. Each correct answer gets four marks, and wrong answers get minus one mark each.

 

Q3. How to prepare to get seats for counselling for NEET PG 2024?

Ans. The preparation tips include staying up to date with the dates and schedule from the official website or official resources. Apart from this, it is all with knowledge. Study hard and excel in the exam.

Also, one must follow these to stay prepared:

1. Always stay updated with info related to entrance exam, specific documents required on the exam day, info on the dates of counselling and tentative data of availability of seats, cut-off percentage, etc.
2. Don’t forget to attempt NEET PG with the best of your efforts. Don’t get scared from the question paper. Be prepared for the exam hall challenges and stay relaxed while attempting the exam.
3. Last, but not the least, after getting the desired score in NEET PG 2024 , while registering for counseling process, don’t forget to fill the application form correctly. Keep your documents like Aadhar card, marksheets, and other details handy. Always cross-check the details while registrations.
4. Do not forget to be on time. Arrange your accommodation/travel beforehand. It’s a once in a lifetime chance.

 

Q4. What are the dates for NEET PG 2024 Counselling?

Ans. With the changes in schedule of examinations, the tentative calendar for NEET PG 2024 Exam seems to be as follows:

• Results of NEET PG are expected to be released in July, 2024
• From August 5th, 2024, the counseling process is expected to start
• Round 2 results and choice filling for round 3 are expected in the month of September, 2024.
• The online stray vacancy round result is expected to go on floors by October, 2024.

The National Eligibility cum Entrance Test (NEET) UG is one of the most necessary exams for students to get admission in the medical colleges of India. The NEET UG 2024 medical entrance exam has been particularly eventful, with various incidents and developments that have kept candidates on their toes. Here’s everything you need to know about the NEET UG 2024 exam, including key dates, incidents, and what to expect next.

 

When was NEET UG Exam Date 2024 Scheduled?

The NEET UG 2024 exam was earlier scheduled and taken on May 5, 2024. Students in the examination hall would have never thought of the future. Due to disruptions at some places where the exam was held, a retest was scheduled for later.

 

When was the Retest?

The retest took place on June 23, 2024, in six cities across India for 1,563 candidates who experienced issues during the initial exam at the examination centre. Entrance examinations facing issues have become highlighted news in the country. NEET UG being one of those!

However, this National eligibility cum entrance test ‘retest’ was taken again for specific candidates who faced issues, and not all.

These specific candidates were granted grace marks due to the loss of time at their exam centres on May 5. The admit cards for this retest were released on June 20, 2024. Now, the results are expected to be declared on June 30, 2024.

 

What Was The NEET 2024 Paper Leak Controversy?

NEET UG was in news all around due to an alleged paper leak. The case is now with the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI), assigned by the Ministry of Education.

This controversy intensified the demand for a re-exam for all 24 lakh NEET UG aspirants. However, as per authorities conducting a retest for everyone was not feasible as it would disrupt the genuine candidates’ candidature and schedule.

 

How Did Candidates Register For NEET UG?

Before the exam leak, when students had no clue of what would happen, they worked hard to seamlessly register themselves and get through the application form with no stress!

However, the registration process, and keeping registration credentials and documents safe is really challenging. Thankfully, it did not go waste for all. Only some specific students who got grace marks re-appeared for the NTA NEET UG Exam.

 

How Did Students Register For NEET UG?

Students went through rigorous application form filling. The National Testing Agency has an aligned application process. Candidates went through the same.

Amid digital and online modes, uploading documents, waiting for correction window, staying tuned to wrap up before application window closes, and keeping a close eye on the future admission process requirements, students really worked hard. Candidates kept the registration credentials safe, perfected the time management skills while application, and kept their hall tickets safe too.

 

What Next To Expect After NEET UG Exam Date 2024?

Followed by NEET UG exam is the counselling. So, candidates need to prepare themselves for counselling after results.

 

What is the NEET UG 2024 Counselling Schedule?

Despite the controversies, the NEET UG 2024 counselling will proceed as scheduled. At the time of admission, while students stand at the medical colleges, it will all be in their memories. Such a roller coaster!

NEET UG Counseling is expected to commence from July 6, 2024. The counselling process will be based on NEET 2024 scores and will be conducted for admissions to various quotas seats, including the 15% All India Quota (AIQ), 85% state quota, deemed/central universities, private colleges, AFMS/ESIC institutes, and AIIMS and JIPMER campuses. The National Testing Agency announced the NEET result for over 24 lakh students on June 4, 2024. All of these students are ready to get into the medical colleges of their choice. For sure, taking up medical courses isn’t a cakewalk.

 

Eligibility for NEET UG Counselling Process 2024

To participate in NEET UG Counselling 2024, candidates must meet the following eligibility criteria:

• Qualified in NEET UG 2024: Candidates must have qualified in the NEET UG 2024 exam by securing the minimum marks/ percentile score required.
• Minimum Age Requirement: Candidates must be at least 17 years old as of December 31, 2024.
• Educational Qualification: Candidates must have passed 10+2 with Physics, Chemistry, Biology/Biotechnology, and English as core subjects from a recognized board.
• Nationality: Indian citizens, Non-Resident Indians (NRIs), Overseas Citizens of India (OCIs), Persons of Indian Origin (PIOs), and Foreign Nationals are eligible.
• State Eligibility: For state quota seats, candidates must meet the domicile requirements specified by the respective state authorities. Category candidates can attach their proofs also while process is on.

 

Steps for NEET UG Counselling 2024

1. Filling Registration Form for NEET UG Counselling 2024

• Visit the official website of the Medical Counselling Committee (MCC) or the respective state counselling authority.
• Start the application process by registering as a new candidate.
• Enter required details and registration credentials like NEET roll number, registration number, name, mother’s name, date of birth, mobile number, and email ID.
• Create a password and complete the registration process.

 

2. Payment of NEET UG Counselling Fee

• Pay the counselling application fee online using Net Banking, Credit Card, or Debit Card.
• The application fee structure will be specified on the official website. The application process, (separate) for counseling is incomplete without payment.

 

3. The Choice Filling and Locking

• Log in using the registration credentials created during registration process. It is all via online modes so try to be digitally equipped.
• Fill in the choices of medical colleges and medical courses in order of preference.
• Lock the choices before the deadline. If your medical colleges’ and courses’ choices are not locked, the system will automatically lock them.

 

4. Seat Allotment In NEET UG Counselling

• The MCC/state counselling authority will conduct the seat allotment process based on the choices filled, NEET UG rank, reservation criteria/quota seats, and seat availability.
• The seat allotment result will be published on the official website.

 

5. Reporting to Allotted Medical College

• Download the seat allotment letter from the official website.
• Report to the allotted college within the specified time frame.
• Carry all required documents for verification. It’s an offline mode process. Just like online application form, here in physical documents verification, a candidate has to be very careful.

 

6. Document Verification

Candidates must present original documents and their photocopies for verification.

Documents required typically include:

• NEET UG 2024 Admit Card (You can’t skip this one!)
• NEET UG 2024 Rank Card (After all the hard-work, forgetting scorecard would be an issue!)
• Class 10 and 12 Mark Sheets and Certificates (Forget not to show your pro levels of English subjects, Physics, Chemistry and Biology)
• Birth Certificate (It’s an important proof)
• Category Certificate (if applicable)
• Domicile Certificate (if applicable)
• ID Proof (Aadhar Card, Passport, etc.)
• Passport-sized Photographs

 

7. Admission Confirmation

• After successful document verification, candidates must confirm their admission process by paying the required fee at the allotted medical college.
• Obtain the admission confirmation letter from the college. Time of admission is crucial. Stay motivated. You already have the score for admission! Now you need only some positivity.

 

8. Reporting for Further Rounds

• If candidates wish to participate in further counselling rounds for better choices, they need to follow the instructions provided by the counselling authority.

 

9. Mop-Up Round (if applicable)

• If seats remain vacant after the first few rounds, a mop-up round will be conducted.
• Candidates who did not get a seat or want to upgrade their allotted seat can participate in this round. From day one in that exam hall to this mop-round of counseling process, it’s a rigorous journey. But faith helps a candidate sail through!
• Not to forget, for specific details and updates, regularly check the official websites of MCC and state counselling authorities.

 

What was the NEET 2024 Exam Pattern and Cutoff?

The cutoff scores for NEET UG 2024 are as follows:

• General Category: 720-164
• SC/ST/OBC Category: 163-129
• General-PwD Category: 163-146
• SC/ST/OBC-PwD Category: 145-129

The pattern is as follows:

• 200 Questions Format: The NEET UG 2024 exam pattern consisted of 200 questions, out of which candidates had to answer 180.
• Three Subjects: The questions covered Physics, Chemistry, and Biology.
• Marking Scheme: The marking scheme awarded four marks for each correct answer, deducted one mark for each incorrect answer, and gave no marks for unanswered questions.
• Candidates who qualify for the test will be eligible to participate in the NEET 2024 counselling process.

 

What are NTA’s Preparations for the Future of NEET UG EXAM?

The NTA has clarified that despite reports of a question paper leak at one examination center, the integrity of the NEET exam remains intact. The incident at the Sawai Madhopur center in Rajasthan, where students took question papers away against their will, did not affect other centers. The NTA also clarified that all question papers were accounted for and that strict security protocols were in place, including CCTV surveillance and restricted access once the exam began.

 

How Many Candidates Had Registered For NEET UG EXAM DATE 2024?

NEET UG 2024 saw a record-high number of registrations, with 20+ lakh students, including 10 lakh + male students and 13 lakh+ female students. It could happen because many smaller cities were included in the list of exam centers especially in the Northeast, Puducherry, Jammu and Kashmir, and other states.

 

What Must Be Guidance For NEET Aspirants in Future?

For aspirants preparing for future NEET exams, resources like online courses can be highly helpful. With multiple courses meticulously designed here, students can prepare really well for future exams.

 

Conclusion

The NEET UG 2024 has been a rollercoaster for many candidates, with its fair share of controversies and challenges. However, with the retest completed and the counselling process set to begin, students can finally see a clearer path forward. It’s essential for candidates to stay focused and not be swayed by rumours or misinformation. As the results and counselling processes unfold, aspirants should stay updated with official announcements and prepare for the next steps in their medical careers.

 

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q1. Is NEET UG Exam Date 2024 Scheduled?

Ans. Yes. NEET UG Exam was done on May 5th, 2024. But due to issues in the exam hall and specific centers, some candidates appeared for the re-test. This exam for admission was held again on June 23, 2024.

 

Q2. What will happen next after NEET exam 2024?

Ans. Rounds of counselling are scheduled further. The counselling process will begin as decided previously. It will most probably begin from July 6, 2024.

 

Q3. What is the eligibility for Counselling process?

Ans. Having qualified NEET UG exam is the first priority. To clear this exam, it is advisable to practice hard with mock tests, participate in mock competitive exams, practice questions from various sources, and analyse the previous year questions and answer key.

Over a lakh candidates participate in the exam every time. Those who get qualifying marks can participate further in the application process of NEET UG counseling process. Not to forget, the candidate must be at least seventeen years of age to be eligible for the same. For more details, refer to the blog above.

 

Q4: What should be the study schedule for NEET UG/PG Exams?

Ans. With so much going on in the news, it is advisable to stay calm. Do not worry about getting a minimum score, instead worry about exam preparation effectively and efficiently. Go through exam syllabus in detail, study in online modes to save time, perform mock tests, practice as per exam pattern and analyse previous year question papers to understand difficulty level.

 

Q5. What is the exam pattern of NEET UG exam? Would it continue in the future?

Ans. For qualifying examination, the question types are not many! It’s only an MCQ format. The NEET UG exam consists of 200 multiple-choice questions. For incorrect answers, there’s negative marking. One wrong answer snatches one mark from the candidate. While, one correct answer would fetch four marks. There is no mark given for unattempted response. As of now, the exam pattern, exam preparation, and exam syllabus seems to be same for future, inclusive of Physics, Chemistry, Biology as core subjects for the exam prep. However, it is advisable to keep a close check on the National Testing Agency and other official websites for any change, if happens.

 

Q6. What sources to trust for further updates?

Ans. Only official websites of National Testing Agency must be trusted. With multiple news circulating all over, there must only be websites from official sources to clarify things. For future reference, the website is: https://www.nta.ac.in/

The NEET PG 2024 examination is one of the most crucial milestones for medical students in India aiming for postgraduate education. It has recently seen a dramatic turn of events. This blog will cover all the important details and the complete NEET PG exam schedule. So, if you’re wondering what is the new NEET PG exam date 2024, read ahead to get some clarity over the same.

 

What is NEET PG 2024? An Overview

NEET PG (National Eligibility cum Entrance Test for Postgraduates) is an important examination for medical graduates aspiring to pursue postgraduate courses of MD (Doctor of Medicine), MS (Master of Surgery), and other diploma courses in India. The exam is conducted by the National Board of Examinations (NBE).

 

Why has NEET PG 2024 Postponed? Latest Updates

Read below to figure out why NEET PG 2024 has been postponed!

What is the Ministry’s Announcement on NEET PG Exam Date 2024?

The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW) turned the tables for many. It recently announced the postponement of the NEET PG 2024 exam, which was originally scheduled for June 23, 2024. Students have reacted with dissatisfaction. How many times Neet PG is conducted in a year? It happens once! While students wait for NEET PG exam time, this news has sparked discontent among candidates.

 

What are the Reasons to Postpone NEET PG Exam Time?

The postponement of the NEET PG exam schedule was announced just a day before the official scheduled exam date, causing stress among the candidates. The Ministry has strong reasons for “precautionary measures” and aims to ensure fairness and transparency. Post incidents linked to NEET UG, UGC NET, and CSIR NET, this decision has been taken to ensure a thorough assessment of the examination process.

 

What is the Revised NEET PG Exam Date 2024?

As of now, there is no information regarding revised NEET PG exam schedule. The NEET PG 2024 seems to be on hold till the further official announcement. Presently, candidates are highly advised to keep an eye on the official website and notifications from the Ministry for the latest updates. At the same time, students must not take stress, rather stay calm and confident of their preparation.

 

What was the Original NEET PG 2024 Schedule?

Before the postponement, the NEET PG 2024 exam was supposed to follow a well-defined schedule. The details of previous schedule are as follows:

• Registration Start Date: April 16, 2024
• Last Date to Submit Application: May 6, 2024
• Last Date to Modify Incorrect Images: June 10, 2024
• Admit Card Release Date: June 18, 2024
• NEET PG Exam Date: June 23, 2024
• Result Date: July 15, 2024

 

What Preparation is Needed for NEET PG 2024 Exam?

There are preps required before the exam and after the exam. Now that the exam has been delayed, students have a chance to utilise the time for better preparation.

“Dear Candidates,
NEET PG 2024 Exam has been delayed not to cause you stress but to ignite the fire of ‘last-moment preparation.’ Now that you have a chance, how about giving your final preparation an edge, rather than stressing over things?
Let the authorities do their work. As an aspiring candidate, you do your work! Your work of- Staying focused, not getting impacted by external factors, and preparing till the last moment without anxiety.”

How Can Candidates Prepare before NEET PG 2024 Exam?

Before the NEET PG exam time, there’s a lot that students need to be prepared for.

• Documents Prep: Admit Card must be downloaded in advance. Registration login credentials must be kept safe during the registration process. Be careful while filling basic details. It stays till the last. Also, whenever NEET PG exam time is scheduled, reach before time to avoid the hassle of exhaustive verification process.
• Study Prep: It must include all sorts of mock tests and guidance from the industry experts in the form of webinars, videos, or online courses. This NEET PG is the way out to reach your dream medical college. So, before beginning the ultimate academic session, be 100% prepared.
• Psychological Prep: With meditation and focus exercises, the mind must be prepared for all sorts of challenges. The latest news is an example of how things can impact.

 

What are the ‘After NEET PG Exam Preps’?

After the exam is done, the results would be available in a PDF format on the official website of NBE. Here, login credentials would be required again to download the scorecards. The procedure is:

• Go to the NBE website
• Login via credentials (ID & Password)
• Download the scorecard
• Don’t forget to cross-verify the details (Name, Roll Number, Rank, etc.)
• What to do when NEET PG 2024 Exam results are out?

 

Post-Result Processes

After the results are announced, qualified candidates would be able to download their scorecards and take part in the counselling process further.

• First Download Scorecard: In PDF format, download the scorecard from the official website.
• Check the Merit List: Those who become eligible for counselling, their merit list will be published.
• March ahead for Counselling: The qualified candidates can then register for counselling sessions to ensure their seats in the postgraduate medical courses.

 

But What is the NEET PG 2024 Counselling Process?

• Post declaration of NEET PG exam results, first and foremost, get registered for the Counselling Process.
• Next, fees need to be submitted online.
• Next, Candidates need to choose the colleges and list of courses from the list and lock it.
• Then candidates can look forward to a PDF list of seat allotment.
• Post seat allotment, log in to MCC website and download the seat allotment letter. Don’t forget to reach on time for the counselling.
• Next comes the documents verification.
• Then you have NEET PG Merit List, where candidates are allotted seats.

 

Conclusion

Undoubtedly, the news of postponement of the NEET PG 2024 exam has shaken the students. However, it is advisable to students to stay updated with the news from a trustworthy source or official websites of the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare and the National Board of Examinations. The real victory lies in winning over such unpredictable situations. So, dear candidates, all the very best. Stay focused amid unexpected changes. Set right your schedule for neet pg preparation and go ahead!!!

 

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q1. How to download the NEET PG 2024 Exam Admit Card?

Ans. The admit cards for NEET PG 2024 were available on 18, June ,2024 itself. Students had downloaded it using their login credentials from the official website. It is highly important for the candidates to keep their login credentials safe, considering the crucial present times. While registration for the NEET PG Exam, login credentials are given. Those are to be kept safe to download the admit card details later.

 

Q2. What is the NEET PG 2024 Exam pattern?

Ans. The NEET PG 2024 exam will consist of 200 multiple-choice questions. The exam is computer-based, requiring candidates to be familiar with digital mediums.

 

Q3. What is the NEET PG exam time duration?

Ans. Candidates will be given 3.5 hours to complete the test. Since it is a time-based test, candidates need to wrap up accordingly. Therefore, it is highly advised to the students to get familiar with time-based mock tests beforehand for real-time simulation.

 

Q4. What should be the schedule for neet pg preparation?

Ans. It depends from candidate to candidate. However, it is recommended to add mock tests in the schedule for neet pg preparation. These give real-time simulation. Video lectures from experts also form a great basis of prep.

 

Q5. What is the application process of NEET PG exam?

Ans. The application process is via online mode. Once the application dates are out, medical students need to register themselves. Post registration, there is a time for candidates to wrap up the details within edit window. Before correction window closes, the application form needs to be absolutely correct.

During registrations, candidates are forwarded with credentials inclusive of ID and password that is used till then end to view results, download scorecard, and so on. The NEET PG exam is in computer-based mode. So, from filling application form i.e online registrations to getting details of exam center , and from counselling schedule to seat allotment process, it is all digital.

 

Q6. What is the NEET PG Exam marking scheme?

Ans. Students undergo a lot of pressure while thinking about type of questions, unattempted questions, negative marking, and minimum cutoff. However, medical students must not take the stress. The marking scheme of NEET PG is simple to understand. This NEET PG exam for students possesses 200 questions in the question paper. It is of 800 marks in total. For every correct response, the student gets four marks, while for every incorrect response, one mark will be deducted. So, correct answer fetches a mark and incorrect answer indicates towards negative marking. There would be no mark given for any unattempted or reviewed question. Therefore, it is advisable to take mock tests beforehand and review answer key during the practice sessions.

 

Q7. How to check NEET PG exam results?

Ans. NEET PG exam is yet to happen. Surely one of the most important exams in the medical field. Once it is done, students wait for the results eagerly. The steps to check results are as follows:

• Reach out to the official website of NBE.
• Login via credentials
• Download the scorecard and save in PDF format
• Verify the details and save it
• Keep hardcopy safe for counselling process

 

Q8. Who all are the eligible candidates to take part in the NEET PG exam?

Ans. The eligibility criteria is to have an MBBS degree or a provisional MBBS passing certification that is recognised by the MCI. Moreover, it is highly important to have one year of completion of internship.

Apart from this, proper registration must have been done. Students need to wrap up application fees, check details for a correct registration form, double check registration credentials, cross-verify application details, and keep a track of dates to avoid any miss-communication. All of it together contributes to eligibility.

 

Q9. What must be done now when the NEET PG schedule is not released?

Ans. Earlier the application form for NEET PG was out and candidates had to finish registration process till MAY 6, 2024. With release of Admit Cards on June 18, 2024, the candidates are now waiting for the NEET PG exam date. While it was scheduled for June 23, 2024, it is yet to be scheduled now. At this moment, when students are waiting for the date, this time must be used to stay calm. Keep a close check on the official websites to get the updates.

NEET UG 2024 results are in the news these days. The NEET UG results are out and there’s a lot that you need to know. Headlines have been talking a lot about medical students, grace marks, negative marking, exam paper chaos, compensatory marks, and suspicious qualifying marks. To clarify the confusion and update you about the NEET UG results, read the blog ahead.

 

What is NEET UG 2024 Examination?

The National Eligibility-cum-Entrance Test (Undergraduate), commonly known as NEET UG, is a crucial exam for students aspiring to pursue undergraduate medical courses in India. It is one of the prestigious medical entrance exams that is long awaited by the medical students. To gain that perfect score in the exam, students work hard day and night.

 

What is National Testing Agency?

Conducted by the National Testing Agency (NTA), NEET UG serves as a gateway to prestigious medical colleges across the country. Respective colleges provide admission via NEET UG. Before the application window closes, students register for the exam and streamline their application process. From exam date announcement to exam centre information, medical students aim not to miss any single piece of information.

• National Testing Agency officially announces NEET UG Exam date, NEET UG Results, and counselling process dates too.
• A medical student must rely on the official communication from the side of National Testing Agency. After all, NTA NEET UG exam and results is a serious topic. No viral news or info must be believed.
• There are several other official websites and YouTube channels that give timely updates regarding registration process, information of fee and eligibility for category candidates, information on quota seats, the overall eligibility criteria, category-wise cutoff score, full-fledged application process and shutting down of application correction window.
• To help students prepare, timely content including informing about exam pattern, minimum marks, maximum marks, NEET 2024 tie-breaking criteria if any, difficulty level, exam syllabus, mock tests, etc. must be consumed.

 

What is the Significance of NEET UG 2024 in Medical Education?

NEET UG has a significant role in the Indian education system. It serves as the sole entrance test for undergraduate medical programs since the enactment of the National Medical Commission (NMC) Act in 2019. This act consolidated multiple entrance exams into a single, standardized test, streamlining the admission process to institutions such as the All India Institutes of Medical Sciences (AIIMS) and Jawaharlal Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education & Research (JIPMER). National Testing Agency conducts the exam. Fate of more than lakh students is decided post they appear for this exam for admission in the medical colleges of their choice. Similar to many competitive exams, this exam also results in excitement and stress at the same time. Students are worried of correct answer attempts, incorrect answer attempts, marking scheme, a great percentile score, getting through the cutoff score. All of the worry is gone if students are well-informed, prepare for the best, attempt the best, and wait for NEET UG results patiently.

 

What was NEET UG 2024 Results Schedule?

Registration Held	9 February – 10 April, 2024
Admit Card Availability	1 – 5 May, 2024
Exam	5 May, 2024
Re-exam	23 June, 2024
NEET UG Results	4 June, 2024
Re-NEET UG Results	30 June, 2024

 

Are NEET UG 2024 Results Out ? What is the Confusion?

Yes, the NEET UG 2024 results are out. The NEET UG 2024 was conducted on May 5, 2024, and this year’s examination was a notable event with several key aspects worth discussing. With involvement of Supreme Court and tons of aspiring candidates, it has become a topic of discussion.

 

What is the News of NEET UG?

This year’s NEET UG was not without its challenges. Following the exam, reports emerged about incidents such as wrong question paper medium distribution, question paper leaks, faulty examination centres with and proxy exam takers. These issues led to significant unrest among the candidates and stakeholders, resulting in demands for a retest. In response to these concerns, National Testing Agency formed a Grievance Redressal Committee to review and address the complaints.

 

Would NEET UG 2024 Results be Released Again?

Yes! Atleast for those who are appearing again. A notable decision was made regarding 1,563 candidates who were initially given grace marks due to the reported anomalies. Following a Supreme Court hearing on June 13, 2024, it was decided that the scores of these candidates would be canceled, and they were given the option to reappear for the exam on June 23, 2024. The results for this retest are scheduled to be declared on June 30, 2024.

 

How to Prepare for NEET UG 2024 Results?

Good results come from good hard work! Everyone would say, ”If you wish to get good NEET UG 2024 results, prepare wisely for the medical courses of your choice.” There’s no doubt in this-

‘A good exam attempted with no loss of time, no wrong answer, management of difficulty level, and strategic correct answers will always fetch good NEET UG results.’

So, let’s prepare for the exam to prepare our ears and eyes for the announcement of NEET UG results. Those who have attempted can take note of it for the next time. Re-takers can benefit from the tips here.

 

Preparation Tips for NEET UG

Given the competitive nature of NEET UG, thorough preparation is essential. Candidates are advised to focus on a balanced study plan that covers all three subjects—Physics, Chemistry, and Biology. Regular practice of previous years’ question papers and taking mock tests can help in understanding the exam pattern and improving time management skills. Additionally, staying updated with any official announcements from National Testing Agency is crucial for a seamless exam experience. So, the Prep Tips are:

• Keeping in mind loss of time, prepare with mock tests to get real time exam simulation.
• Go through colleges, programs & specializations beforehand to start preparation accordingly. Get exhaustive info days in advance, from official websites.
• Having no mental stress is very important for qualifying examination . So, your prep schedule must include ‘A NO STRESS MANTRA.’
• Increasing percentile score should be the goal. So, during mock tests, try that you grasp the maximum out of it. However, always introspect and mention your short term and long term goals. Attempt the exam accordingly.
• Start by creating a study schedule that allows you to allocate enough time for each subject. Make sure to cover all the important topics and concepts within the given time frame.
• To understand the exam pattern better, it is crucial to solve previous years’ question papers. This will not only give you a clear idea about the type of questions asked but also help you identify your strengths and weaknesses.
• Take mock tests regularly to gauge your preparation level. Mock tests simulate the actual exam environment and help you improve your time management skills. Analyze your performance after each mock test to identify areas that need improvement.
• Don’t just focus on memorizing facts, but also try to understand the concepts behind them. This will help you in applying your knowledge to different scenarios and solving complex problems.
• Form study groups with like-minded individuals who are also preparing for NEET UG. Discussing difficult topics and solving problems together can enhance your understanding of the subjects.
• Answer key is not always required. Sometimes, incorrect answer teach you better. Imagine one wrong answer while you appear in mock test. It will give you a lesson of life!

 

What are the Basic Preps Before NEET UG 2024 Results?

• Stay updated with any official announcements from the National Testing Agency. This will ensure that you have the latest information regarding the exam date announcement, changes in the exam syllabus, and any other important updates.
• Also, align with National Testing Agency again for exam pattern, tips to overcome difficulty level, eligibility criteria, registration process, admission process, counselling process, etc.
• Do not forget to keep your registration credentials safe. When NEET test results will be out, it will help you.
• ‘How to check NEET UG result’ will become a popular search. So, ensure you are aware of the tech errors that occur when the entire world is buy checking NEET UG results.

 

What are the Key Points to Remember when NEET UG Results are Out?

Tech-Related Preparation

As the NEET UG 2024 results are approaching, it’s important to ensure that you have no issues with your PCs or laptops, Candidates must be technically prepared to access NEET UG 2024 results and subsequent information from counselling authorities smoothly:

1. Stable Internet Connection: While checking your NEET US results link or registering for counseling rounds, there must not be any buffering.
2. Updated Browser: An updated web browser to access the official National Testing Agency and MCC websites is always better. It is advisable for compatibility and security when downloading your scorecard.
3. Bookmark Official Sites: Save the official NTA NEET website and MCC counseling portal for ease.

 

Preparation of Credentials

Before the NEET UG results are announced, keep the necessary credentials and documents handy to streamline the process:

1. Admit Card: Keep your NEET UG 2024 admit card readily available as it contains essential registration credentials and other details required to check your results.
2. Registration Credentials: Ensure you know have your registration number and password. It is provided to the candidate at -UG registrations and then required for logging into the result portal. Also, do not share your OTPS or security pin in case required anywhere.
3. Valid Contact Details: The email ID and phone number must be registered with NEET. Ensure they are active and accessible.
4. Document Folder: A physical folder of academic certificates, ID proof, and other relevant documents will help at the time of admission. This will be useful for both checking results and the counseling process.

 

When NEET UG Result be Declared?

These qualifying marks of some students became questionable to many. People are figuring out if there is any imbalance of minimum marks or maximum marks. Following a Supreme Court hearing on June 13, 2024, it was decided that the scores of these candidates would be omitted. The NEET UG results for this retake are expected to be declared on June 30, 2024.

 

When will NEET UG 2024 Counseling Process Results be Out?

Once the NEET UG results are out, the counseling process begins, which is crucial for candidates to secure their seats in medical colleges. After overcoming all the negative markings and obtaining those qualifying marks, NEET UG counselling process starts. the eligibility criteria calls for passing the exam.

 

What is NEET UG Counselling?

The counseling for NEET UG 2024 is traditionally conducted in four rounds:

1. Round 1
2. Round 2
3. Mop-Up Round
4. Stray Vacancy Round

If there are still vacant seats after the Stray Vacancy Round, an additional seat allocation round may be conducted. The Medical Counselling Committee (MCC) oversees the first three rounds in an online mode for All India Quota (AIQ) seats. To participate, students must register on the official MCC website. For state quota seats, registration must be done on the respective state NEET websites.

 

Final Words

NEET UG exam result date is now JUNE 30th, 2024, post re-test.

In the confusion between a correct answer and an incorrect answer, a candidate may lose its confidence while attempting the exam. So, it’s advisable to stay confident. Getting a minimum score in NEET UG can close doors for that one golden opportunity. So, be calm and prepare nicely. Be it Government medical college or a private one, whatever you get, study hard. Hopefully NEET UG results would write a new destiny for all the future doctors.

 

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q1. How to check NEET UG result?

Ans. NEET results are available on the official website on the National Testing Agency. After the official notice of ‘NEET UG 2024 Results are OUT’, candidates can reach them out to check, via their registration credentials.

 

Q2. How many counselling rounds exist after NEET UG 2024?

Ans. Counselling authorities have four rounds for it. It has been mentioned above, in the blog. And to mention, NEET UG is the only way out to get through qualifying status for counselling.

 

Q3. What is application correction facility?

Ans. Post registration process, the application can be corrected till a specific date. It is to help the concerned omit errors during the application process.

 

Q4. What is the official cutoff?

Ans. A source over the internet confirms the cut off as 720 to 137 for the general category and 136 to 107 for quota seats/OBC/SC/ST for previous year. This time, it hasn’t released.

 

Q5. Why is NEET UG in news?

Ans. For some medical students, the current marking system, and certain methods of taking up the exam did not go well with the aspiring doctors.

 

Q6. How to study at a NEET UG coaching centre?

Ans. Your offline or online coaching institute must help you streamline your prep for the dream medical colleges. Ask them what’s raw score? Do you help in admission process? Do we get extra marks? or How to master the core subjects? All these questions would help you stay aware and updated. Study the entire syllabi, with hard work.

The skeleton is the framework of bones, it is a type of connective tissue, reinforced with bone cells and calcium. Bones include a yielded core known as bone marrow, it is a spongy soft tissue that fills the cavities in bones and holds cells that create red and white blood cells.

Bones are responsible for protecting organs from potential damage and help support our body enabling movement.

In various types of bone fractures, the severity of the fracture depends upon the strength and direction of the force, with the bone involved.

 

What are the Different Types of Bone Fractures?

Common Types of Bone Fracture	Description
Close (Simple Fracture)	Bone breaks without piercing the skin.
Open (Compound Fracture)	Bone breaks through the skin’s surface, causing an open wound.
Greenstick Fracture	Incomplete fracture is where the bone bends and cracks but doesn’t completely break.
Hairline Fracture	Minor crack in the bone’s surface without full separation. Most common form of stress fracture.
Complicated Fracture	Bone breaks and causes damage to surrounding tissues and organs
Avulsion Fracture	The tendon or ligament pulls off a fragment of bone.
Compression Fracture	Bone collapse due to pressure, often in the vertebrae.
Transverse Fracture	The fracture line is horizontal across the bone shaft.
Oblique Fracture	The fracture line is diagonal across the bone shaft.
Spiral Fracture	Fracture lines spiral around the bone, often caused by a twisting force.

 

Fractures can occur not only in limbs such as arms and legs but also in critical areas like the head, chest, spine, or pelvis.

Injuries to bones like skull or ribs are the regions that can be particularly challenging due to the complex structures they protect.

Managing fractures in these areas often requires more than basic first-aid techniques and may involve complex medical interventions. These kinds of fractures represent life-threatening injuries that require emergency assistance.

Let’s dive into these complex fractures:

1. Compression Fracture: It typically occurs in vertebrae (bones of the spine), where the affected bone is compressed or collapses. It can result from trauma, such as falls or road traffic accidents, or from conditions like osteoporosis, which is the most common cause of compression fractures.

2. Skull Fracture: It occurs when one or more bones that make up the skull are broken, these fractures can vary in severity depending on the force and direction of the impact. It may also called a traumatic brain injury or TBI. Mild breaks cause few problems and heal over time and severe fractures can lead to bleeding around the brain, leaking of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), infection, brain damage, and seizures. The role of different skull bones, including the temporal, parietal, and occipital bones is crucial in understanding the potential consequences of a fracture:

• Temporal Bone: Bone is found on the sides and base of the skull. It is relatively thin, typically around 4mm thick. The temporal bones include important structures like the middle and inner ear, as well as some blood vessels.
• Parietal Bones: These bones form the sides and top of the skull. They are thicker than temporal bone, ranging from 5 to 10 mm thick.
• Occipital Bone: Located at the back and base of the skull, the occipital bone is the thickest among these three, typically measuring around 15 mm in thickness.

 

Skull Fractures are Classified into Various Types of Fracture Based on their Location

Type of Skull Fracture	Description	Mechanism of Injury
Linear Fracture	Also known as a fissured fracture that is often thin and may be missed on X-rays, making it more detectable during MRI or CT-scan. It typically occurs due to a heavy blunt blow to the head, resulting in a linear break in the skull’s continuity.	Direct Impact or blunt trauma to the skull.
Basilar Skull Fracture	Occurs at the base of the skull, involving bones such as the temporal, occipital, and sphenoid bones.	Associated with head trauma it can lead to leakage of cerebrospinal fluid from the nose or ears.
Diastatic Fracture	Fracture involves separation along sutures, which is common in young adults. A frequent site is the sagittal suture, where widening or separation occurs due to significant trauma.	Sudden force causing separation of sutures.
Depressed Fracture	Known as a signature or ala fracture, results from a small, focused impact such as from a hammer. It causes inward indentation of the skull’s surface, often damaging both outer and inner layers of bone.	Direct blow from a heavy weapon or object with a small striking surface.
Pond/ Indented Fracture	Commonly seen in infants, this fracture leaves a visible dent or indentation on the skull’s surface. It’s also referred to as ping pong ball fracture and is caused using obstetric forceps during childbirth.	Obstetric forceps apply pressure during delivery.
Gutter Fracture	Occurs on the outer surface of the skull due to the tangential impact of an oblique bullet, resulting in a groove-like depression along the bone. It’s characteristic of glancing bullet wounds.	Trajectory of an oblique bullet causing an outer surface fracture.
Comminuted Fracture	Multiple bone fragments caused by a heavy blunt blow, this fracture pattern resembles a spider web with intersecting lines and fragments displaced from the impact site.	Severe blunt force trauma leading to shattered bone fragments.
Ring/ Foramen Fracture	Bones may be broken around the foramen magnum, the hole in the base of the skull through which the brain stem exits and becomes the spinal cord. This may result in injury to the blood vessels and nerves exiting the foramen magnum.	Impact involves the base of the skull, such as falls or specific blows to the head.
Motorcyclist Fracture	Common among motorcyclists, these fractures occur at the skull base, typically from lateral impacts. They are classified into Type 1 (Hinge), Type 2(Frontal to contralateral), and Type 3 (Anterior) based on specific patterns of fracture propagation.	Lateral force transmitted across the skull, typical in motorcycle accidents.
Bow Out Fracture	Involves fractures of the orbital wall (median, posterior, or floor) caused by blunt trauma, resulting in an outward blowing or displacement of bone. It commonly occurs due to forceful impact on the eye area.	Blunt force trauma causes fractures of the orbital bones.

 

What are Some Common Causes of Bone Fracture?

Bone fractures can result from various causes, including:

• Trauma: Falls, sports, injuries, motor vehicle accidents, and direct blows to the body result in traumatic bone fractures.
• Osteoporosis: In this condition, bones become weak due to loss of bone density. In this condition, even minor stresses and falls can cause a fracture.
• Overuse or Repetitive Stress: Repetitive motions can strain bones over time which leads to stress fractures. These fractures develop gradually with small cracks and repetitive impact, which is common in athletes.
• Pathological Conditions: Diseases that weaken bones, such as bone cancer (resulting in pathological fractures), osteogenesis imperfecta (brittle bone disease), or infections like osteomyelitis, can make bones more susceptible to fractures.

 

What are Some Common Symptoms of Fracture?

• Bone fractures cause pain due to inflamed nerve endings in the bone lining (periosteum) and muscle spasms around the fracture site.
• Fractured bones bleed, which leads to swelling and seepage of blood into surrounding tissues, which adds to the pain.
• Bruising around the fracture site may appear as dark red or purple marks due to blood leakage.
• Due to muscle and tendon integrity, movement of the injured limb still be possible, so mobility alone does not rule out a fracture.
• Arteries damage can result in a cool, pale area distal to the injury, while nerve damage may cause numbness in the same area.

 

What is the Treatment Plan for the Bone Fracture?

Treatment for bone fracture depends upon the complication and level of severity to make sure the bone pieces are lined up accurately through surgical procedures or surgical traction.

 

Types of Treatment Based on Fracture Location and Site Include

• Braces: provide support to the bone
• Splints: to stop the movement of the fractured limb
• Plaster Cast: provide rigid support and immobilization
• Traction: for complex fractures to align and stabilize
• Surgically inserted Metal Rods or Plates: In severe cases of fracture that do not heal properly with other methods, metal implants such as metal rods, screws, or metal plates are surgically placed to hold bone fragments.

 

Few Surgical Treatments Depending on the Location and Severity of the Fracture

• Open Reduction and Internal Fixation (ORIF): It is the procedure of realigning the fracture bone fragments ( open reduction) and stabilizing them with internal fixation devices such as metal plates, screws, or metal rods.
• External Fixation: In these types of cases fractures open like a bone protruding through the skin or severely unstable, external fixation may be used. It involves placing metal pins, and screws into the bone above and below the fracture, which are connected to external fragments. Commonly used for fractures of the long bones in the arms and legs.
• Intramedullary Rodding: This procedure includes a metal rod inserted into the hollow center (Medullary canal) of the long bone to stabilize and align the broken bone fragments.
• Joint Replacement: Also known as arthroplasty, becomes necessary in some cases in which fractures severely affect the upper portion of the femur bone, a crucial component of the hip joint, or the humerus bone, integral to the shoulder joint.

 

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q1. What is the difference between a closed fracture and an open fracture?

Ans. A closed fracture occurs when the bone breaks but does not penetrate the skin. It is typically less complicated and carries a lower risk of infection compared to an open fracture, in which bone breaks through the skin. An open fracture requires immediate medical attention to prevent complications such as infection.

Q2. How are head injuries diagnosed and treated?

Ans. Head injuries can vary from mild concussions to severe traumatic brain injuries (TBIs). This diagnosis involves a thorough physical exam and imaging tests like CT scans to assess the extent of the damage.

Treatment options depending on the severity include rest, medication for pain and swelling, with recommended physical therapy which restores range of motion and strength.

Q3. What can do to keep bones strong and reduce the risk of fractures?

Ans. To maintain strong bones and reduce the risk of fractures, it’s important to engage in regular weight-bearing exercises, consume a diet rich in calcium and vitamin D, and avoid smoking and excessive alcohol consumption. Following medical advice and gradually returning to normal activity and daily activities can support bone healing and restore mobility.

Medical students must burn the midnight oil to get through medical colleges. An academic session in a medical college is loaded with struggles and experiences. Above all, clearing NEET PG Examination is a breathtaking journey. First the exam, and then with NEET PG 2024 results around the corner, the heartbeats of students would be fastened. To make it a little easy for them, we have a complete guide here. Read ahead in the blog ‘NEET PG 2024 Results: How to Check and What to Expect?’ to get answers to all your queries.

 

What is the NEET PG Result Date?

From appearing for NEET PG to waiting to be in the merit list is the dream of medical students. Post all the struggles, they wait for just one thing and that’s RESULTS! This year, NEET PG results are to be announced on July 15, 2024.

 

What is the NEET PG 2024 Schedule?

You can download NEET PG schedule information from the official website. To update you here, this medical examination of NEET PG is scheduled on 23rd June 2024. Post 15-20 days, NEET PG results can be expected. For your information, National Board of Examinations had created the following schedule:

Registration process had started on	April 16, 2024
Last day to submit application form was	May 6, 2024
Last day to modify incorrect images was	June 10, 2024
Admit card will be released on	June 18, 2024
NEET PG exam on	June 23, 2024
NEET PG result date is	July 15, 2024

 

We understand the anticipation for the results could be overwhelming. But take it in a way that it would be worth the wait. Think how this big day would open doors for long-awaited opportunities.

 

How to Prepare for NEET PG Results’ Announcement?

Ensure that you have your credentials ready. It is because the NEET PG results are announced in online mode. So, it is advisable to pen down passwords, roll numbers, and other basic details during the registration process. Remember:

• Post successfully filling the online application form, generally complete login details are received. Keep those ready.
• Do not forget to be vigilant during the entire application process.
• Last but not the least, do not delay things. Before the announcement of NEET PG results, keep it all handy to view results seamlessly.
• Also, we must always be mentally prepared for tech errors and websites taking time in loading.

 

What is the Mental State of Students while Appearing for NEET PG?

Students who appear for the NEET PG exam undergo stress at various levels. Students have stress of mentally preparing themselves for a great academic session ahead. Next is the stress of fitting into the shoes of eligibility criteria. The completion of internships is another stress. Then is the major stress of the exam and finally passing it with flying colours.

Details from National Board of Examinations and information regarding exam center, seat allotment process, exam schedule, application dates, fee structure, and mode of application will be what, are to be known beforehand. All of it gives a huge stress. Remember:

• Note down all the details on digital notes or a piece of paper to avoid skipping.
• Make note of Application details, exam pattern, aggregate marks calculation, counselling for seat allotment, issues during counselling, etc. beforehand. This will limit the stress on the spot.
• Ensure there are no discrepancies in application documents.
• Keep a record of previous answer key, information of minimum scores or cutoff score, college authorities’ previous decision-making policies, previous toppers list, etc. to stay 100% prepared.

We understand, from application fee or the exam fee to downloading the admit card is altogether another exercise. Finally entering the examination hall doesn’t put an end to the anxiety. Then emerges a series of questions like ‘What if I attempt an incorrect answer in the NEET PG exam?’ ‘What if I am unable to decode the exam pattern?’ ‘What if I write correct answers but get confused to make it wrong again?’ ‘What if I make silly mistakes by entering personal details wrong?’

Put an end to all of it! It’s high time to stay calm and be confident about your exam preparation. This eligibility cum entrance examination is going to be a fabulous experience. Just soak in this thought and go ahead!

 

What is the NEET PG Results Process?

NEET PG Exam is the entrance test for doctors to pursue post-graduation ahead. To study Doctor of Medicine (MD), Master of Surgery (MS), Diplomate of National Board (DNB), Doctorate of National Board, and diploma courses, it is the pathway to move ahead towards a noble profession. Since it’s a big opportunity, make sure to master the art of preparation throughout.

 

Pre NEET-PG Results Procedure

Pre procedure is almost done. Registrations are closed. Now the admit cards would be available on June 18th, 2024. Students can then enter the exam hall with their hall ticket and take up the exam. It’s a computer-based exam so it requires attention and focus, especially for those who do not like digital mediums much. This medical entrance exam plays a crucial role. So, staying positive is the most important.

Make sure to reach beforehand because the photo identification and checking takes time. It’s an elaborative verification process so do not get exhausted or tensed. All exam centres in all the exam cities must follow this rigorous process. Therefore, it’s better to reach before time and not lose your calm.

 

Post NEET PG Results Process

Post evaluation of the exam, NEET PG results 2024 would be available in the form of PDF. It is important to have login credentials at this moment. Those medical students who qualify for the exam will have the option to download the scorecard. Once the merit list is released, registration for counselling can be completed.

NEET PG RESULTS 2024
⬇️
DOWNLOAD SCORECARD
⬇️
RELEASE OF MERIT LIST
⬇️
REGISTER FOR COUNSELLING

 

How To Check NEET PG 2024 Results?

It’s an easy process involving four steps.

Step 1: Visiting the Official Website
Reach out to NBE’s official website for the results.

Step 2: Login
Insert credentials to login to your account. ID and passwords are to be kept safe for this step.

Step 3: Downloading the Scorecard
The scorecard can be downloaded in PDF format.

Step 4: Verify and Save
Verify and carefully go through details such as Name, Roll Number, Marks Scored, Rank, etc. Post thorough monitoring, save it. A hard copy must be kept for further counselling rounds.

 

Conclusion

The NEET PG 2024 results day is an important milestone for every aspiring postgraduate medical student. In the medical field, it holds a great importance. Whether you’re from the aspiring candidate’s group, eligible candidates’ group or qualified candidates group, the anxiousness lasts till the end. Now that you have clarity over timelines for NEET PG results and information on evaluation of NEET-PG scores, academic details, application process, eligibility criteria, counselling sessions, and other details, you are good to go!

We wish you all the luck. So, get, set, and go!

 

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q1. What are the eligibility criteria for appearing in the NEET PG 2024?

Ans. It is required for the candidates to have an MBBS degree or a provisional MBBS pass certificate, accepted by the Medical Council of India (MCI). Also, it is necessary to have completed the internship deadline.

Q2. What is the exam pattern of NEET PG 2024?

Ans. It is a computer system-based entrance exam, known as Computer Based Test (CBT). With 200 multiple-choice questions, it is a test that covers the entire syllabus from 19 subjects of MBBS. With reference to previous year’s NEET PG test question papers, individual analysis/evaluation can be done with regards to weightage of subjects and their questions.

Q3. What are the criteria for evaluating NEET PG results?

Ans. Each right answer gets four marks. With each wrong answer, the candidate is supposed to witness a deduction of one mark. Via scores, candidates are ranked further while declaring NEET PG results.

Q4. What is the counselling process called?

Ans. Directorate General of Health Services (DGHS) conduct the counselling sessions for admission of candidates to various places.

Q5. When is NEET PG held?

Ans. NEET PG is conducted once a year. It is the most crucial exam in the medical field. So, students eagerly wait for that. Also, the exam timing is for 3.5 hours.

The National Eligibility cum Entrance Test for Post-Graduation is a qualifying and ranking test in India for candidates interested in doing MD, MS, or PG Diploma. This year’s NEET PG Exam is scheduled for 23rd June’24.

Let’s go into the eligibility, Application fee updates, marking scheme, and other details.

NEET PG 2024 Eligibility Criteria:

1. According to the Indian Medical Council Act 1956, the candidates are required to have an MBBS degree or a Provisional MBBS Pass Certificate.
2. Candidates must have a permanent or provisional MCI or SMC-issued MBBS qualification registration.
3. The candidates must have completed a year of internship before applying.

Application and Fees:

As per the NEET PG 2024 fees have been reduced, and the General and OBC applicants must pay Rs. 3,500 to fill out the NEET PG application form, while SC/ST/PWD candidates must pay Rs. 2,500.

Duration:

The exam will be 3.5 hours long.

Exam Format:

The exam will be computer-based and administered at the designated locations.

Test Pattern & Marks:

14 subjects are classified under 3 parts in the paper:

Part A – Pre-clinical subjects

• Anatomy
• Physiology
• Biochemistry

Part B – Para-clinical subjects

• Pathology
• Pharmacology
• Microbiology
• Forensic medicine
• Social & preventive medicine

Part C – Clinical subjects

• General medicine including
• Dermatology & venereology
• Psychiatry
• General surgery including
• Orthopedics, anaesthesia & radiodiagnosis
• Obstetrics & gynecology
• Pediatrics
• ENT
• Ophthalmology

Marking scheme:

Incorrect answers will incur a penalty of 25% through negative marking. No deductions will be made for questions left unanswered.

• +4 marks for correct response

• -1 for incorrect response
• No marks for unattempted question

Important Dates: NBEMS has published the official exam calendar having dates of NEET PG 2024.

Events	Dates
NEET PG 2024 Application form release	16-April-2024
Last Date to submit an application	6-May-2024
Cut-off Release	15-Aug-2024
NEET PG 2024, Exam Date	23-June-2024
Result Declaration	15-July-2024

Note: Candidates should be aware that admit cards will not be provided to those who are found ineligible before the examination.

How to prepare for NEET PG 2024?

It’s time for you to make the most of the preparation period. Revise as much as you can. Whatever you’ve studied to date, it’s now time to test yourself and prepare for the bigger one. Always keep in mind that your perspective defines your reality.

Here are the 7 Tips to crack NEET PG 2024:

1. Create and Stick by a Plan: Decide for the next day before you go to bed and stick to it no matter what. Wake up and stick to your plan so you’re prepared and don’t waste time deciding what to study.
2. Prioritize the subjects where you need conceptual clarity: Focus on conceptual clarity with the help of trusted content only. Finding the right content can be a hassle so choose DigiNerve, an app by Jaypee Brothers who have published most of your textbooks. This online app provides video lectures by India’s top faculty which include your textbook authors.
3. Revision and MCQs: The more you revise, the better; devote the first two months to clarifying concepts of the topics you’re having trouble with, and the last month to solving MCQs.
4. Question papers from previous years: This will assist you in comprehending the NEET PG Exam structure and identifying essential topics that may appear in the exam.
5. Notes: You probably have read everything, and you have the knowledge so now the only thing left is to go through your notes, it will help you recall important points.
6. ITD method: Memorize with the help of the ITD Method- Importance of the topic, Time consumption, and Detailing.
7. Enroll for Mock Tests: Attending mock tests will help you assess your knowledge. This will help you know the subjects where you need clarity. On its official website, the NBE publishes practice tests. One of the most important components of the exam preparation approach is the mock test. You must conduct mock tests after concluding their revision to assess their preparation. You will get to learn what else must be done to increase a particular topic’s score. To access the sample test, you must first log in to the NBE’s official website. Before beginning the online mock test, candidates should carefully read all the instructions. Recalibrate your strategy by taking a mock test and weighing your results.

To prepare for NEET PG 2024, subscribe to DigiNerve’s courses by India’s top faculty today.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs):

Q1. When will NEET PG be in 2024?

Ans. The National Eligibility cum Entrance Test-Postgraduate (NEET PG 2024) will now be held on June 23, 2024.

Q2. Is PG necessary after MBBS?

Ans. For doctors to be successful in their specialties, they must have a postgraduate degree in medicine.

Q3. How do I pay the fees for NEET PG 2024?

Ans. Fees can be paid using a debit/credit card or a net banking service. Candidates should print the confirmation page after successfully paying the application fees.

Pathology is a comprehensive subject, included in the 2^nd year of the MBBS curriculum. It covers various aspects of disease processes, their causes, and the resulting changes in the structure and function of the body. The subject serves as the bridge between the basic sciences and clinical medicine, helping medical professionals understand the underlying processes of diseases.

Medical students must have a sound knowledge of the pathology subject, as it provides a foundation for understanding disease processes, making accurate diagnoses, and formulating appropriate treatment plans. The subject also plays a crucial role in research and contributes significantly to medical knowledge and patient care advancements.

The Pathology course curriculum in MBBS includes an introduction to pathology, cellular pathology, hematology, general pathology, systemic pathology, common pathogens and their mechanisms, histopathology, clinical pathology, autopsy, and forensic pathology.

 

Subject Weightage of Pathology in Competitive Exams

Approximately 12 questions are asked in the NEET-PG exam, and in the INI-CET, approximately, 13-16 questions are asked from the Pathology subject.

The competitive exams mainly assess the understanding of the aspirant regarding disease processes, diagnostic principles, and the application of pathology in clinical scenarios.

Getting familiar with the subject weightage of subjects in exams, exam patterns, high-yield topics, and reliable preparation tips multiplies the chances of gaining conceptual clarity over a subject and scoring high in the exams.

 

Important Topics of Pathology in MBBS

 

Hematology

• Coagulation Pathway
• Hemophilia
• Blood Bank
• Megaloblastic Anemia
• Multiple Myeloma
• Iron Deficiency Anemia
• Sickle Cell Anemia
• Hemolytic Anemia
• Lymphoma
• Hypercoagulability
• Thalassemia
• Acute Leukemia (AML/ALL)
• CML & MDS
• Waldenstrom’s Disease and Heavy Chain Disorders
• Paroxysmal Nocturnal Hemoglobinuria
• Stain

 

Cell Biology

• Cell Injury Concept
• Cellular Adaption
• Irreversible Injury 1 and 2
• Free Radical Injury
• Pigmentation
• Necrosis

 

GIT

• Jaundice
• Fatty Liver
• Hepatitis
• Ulcerative Colitis
• Celiac Disease
• Whipple Disease
• GI Polyps
• Liver disorders
• Inflammatory Bowel Disease
• Peptic Ulcer Disease
• Acute and Chronic Gastritis
• GIT Tumor
• Congenital GIT Anomalies
• Mesothelioma

 

Renal

• PSGN
• Diabetic Retinopathy
• ADPKD
• Renal Cell Carcinoma
• Glomerular Nephritis
• Nephrotic Syndrome
• Alport Syndrome
• Renal Spotters
• Renal Stones

 

CNS

• Malformations of Brain
• CSF Analysis
• Prion Disease
• Medulloblastoma
• Meningioma
• CNS Degenerative Disease
• Meningitis
• CNS Tumor
• Neuroblastoma

 

Lung

• ARDS
• Emphysema
• TB Lung Lesions
• Adenocarcinoma
• Occupational Disease
• Obstructive Lung Disorders
• Pulmonary Hypertension
• Infective Lung Disorders
• Lung Abscess
• Neonatal Respiratory Distress Syndrome
• Lung Cancer
• COPD
• Asbestosis

 

CVS

• Myocardial Infarction
• DCM & HCM
• Aortic Aneurysm
• Rheumatic Heart Disease
• Vasculitis
• Infective Endocarditis
• Vascular Sclerosis
• Bleeding Disorders
• Clotting Factor Disorders
• Blood Transfusion and Blood Grouping
• Platelets Disorders

 

Breast

• Fibroadenoma
• Breast Oncogenesis
• Breast Cancer
• TNM Staging

 

Endocrine

• Papillary Thyroid Carcinoma
• Follicular Carcinoma
• Pheochromocytoma
• Parathyroid and Thyroid Disorders
• Adrenal Gland Disorders

 

Inflammation

• Plasma Chemical Mediators
• Coagulation Cascade
• Chronic Inflammation
• Neutrophil Extracellular Trap
• Inflammatory Markers

 

Malignancy

• Tumor Marker
• Tumor Suppressor Gene
• Molecular Hallmark of Cancer
• Bone Tumors
• Melanoma
• Hodgkin & Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma
• Seminoma

 

Genetics

• Gene Repair Defects
• Inheritance Pattern
• Down Syndrome
• Turner Syndrome
• TNR Disorders
• Single Cell Disorder
• Specific Cytogenetic Disorders

 

Immunology

• Hypersensitivity Reactions
• Granuloma
• Complement Pathway
• Immunodeficiency Disorders

 

Miscellaneous

• Aging
• Marfan & Ehlers Danlos Syndrome
• Transplantation
• HIV
• Hypertension
• Diabetes
• Amyloidosis

 

Tips to Prepare Pathology in MBBS

 

Preparing for pathology in MBBS requires a systematic and comprehensive approach. To have an in-depth understanding of the subject, establish a strong foundation in anatomy, physiology, and biochemistry, as pathology builds upon these subjects. The MBBS curriculum caters to general pathology, hematology, systemic pathology, clinical pathology, and practicals in pathology.

To start with the pathology subject, familiarize yourself with basic medical terminologies, and then move on to the general pathology section. Understand the basics and attend regular classes. From the beginning, create a well-organized study schedule to cover all the topics systematically, and allocate sufficient time to review and consolidate your learning. Once you grasp the fundamental concepts, start with the hematology section.

Be wise while choosing the books for pathology. Opt recommended standard textbooks to clear your concepts, pathology atlases to visualize and understand various pathological conditions, and also add pathology review books to your shelves that provide concise summaries of key concepts for quick revision. Some recommendations for pathology books are Textbook of Pathology by Harsh Mohan, Essentials in Hematology and Clinical Pathology by Ramadas Nayak & Sharada Rai, Exam Preparatory Manual for Undergraduates Pathology by Ramadas Nayak, Rapid Review of Hematology by Ramadas Nayak & Sharada Rai, Review of Pathology and Genetics by Sparsh Gupta & Gobind Rai Garg, and Comprehensive Image-Based Review of Pathology by Sushant Soni.

Then, further, start emphasizing systemic pathology. Thoroughly study all the systems along with prevalent conditions and diagnostic methods. Make sure you make proper notes side by side for all the topics. They will prove quite beneficial at the time of exams for revision, be it professional exams or any competitive exams. During your studies, engage in active learning methods such as concept mapping, creating flashcards, and flowcharts, and teaching concepts to peers. Also, solve clinical case scenarios to apply theoretical knowledge to practical situations. Create mind maps and diagrams to visualize complex pathways and relationships between different pathological conditions.

Remember ‘P for Pathology and P for Practicals’. The subject is better understood when you conduct experiments and practicals simultaneously. It is highly advised to attend pathology practical classes to enhance your understanding of histopathology and diagnostic techniques. Also, during your lab sessions, practice identifying microscopic slides and understanding the correlation between pathology and clinical presentations. Consider shadowing or observing clinical cases in pathology labs. Correlate clinical features with pathological findings to strengthen your understanding of clinical pathology. Becoming capable of finding the clinical relevance of pathological conditions and relating pathology to signs, symptoms, and diagnostic methods is an assertive sign that you are becoming well-versed in pathology concepts.

Along with learning pathology and attending practical sessions, solve practice questions for all the topics for self-evaluation and better understanding. Also, solve past exam papers and mock papers for the exams you are determined to score high. Solving them will help you understand the exam pattern, improve time-management skills, identify key aspects, and focus on high-yielding topics. Along with college lectures, practical sessions, and ward postings, keep yourself updated with the recent advances and research in pathology by attending webinars, workshops, and conferences.

To reinforce your understanding of pathology concepts, you can enroll in the Pathology for UnderGrads online course by Prof. Harsh Mohan, Prof. Ramadas Nayak, and Dr. Debasis Gochhait. The course provides access to video lectures, concise notes, and practice questions, all aligned with the CBME curriculum. The lectures comprise relevant case studies, case discussions, histological and gross images, and important questions for university exams, practical exams, and PG entrance exams. Most importantly, regularly revise topics to reinforce your memory.

 

Must Read: Important Topics of Microbiology

Must Read: Important Topics of Pharmacology

 

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs):

1. What are the important topics of pathology in MBBS?

The important topics of pathology in MBBS include Multiple Myeloma, Iron Deficiency Anemia, Sickle Cell Anemia, Lymphoma, Thalassemia, Acute Leukemia, Gene Repair Defects, Inflammation, Free Radical Injury, Fatty Liver, Ulcerative Colitis, Inflammatory Bowel Disease, Peptic Ulcer Disease, Diabetic Retinopathy, Glomerular Nephritis, Nephrotic Syndrome, CNS Degenerative Disease, Meningitis, Occupational Disease, Infective Lung Disorder, Lung Abscess, Infective Endocarditis, Adrenal Gland Disorders, Breast Cancer, Tumor Suppressor Gene, Hypertension, Genital System, and Down Syndrome.

 

2. Which are the recommended books on pathology for MBBS students?

Recommended books for pathology in MBBS include Textbook of Pathology by Harsh Mohan, Essentials in Hematology and Clinical Pathology by Ramadas Nayak & Sharada Rai, Exam Preparatory Manual for Undergraduates Pathology by Ramadas Nayak, Rapid Review of Hematology by Ramadas Nayak & Sharada Rai, Review of Pathology and Genetics by Sparsh Gupta & Gobind Rai Garg and Comprehensive Image Based Review of Pathology by Sushant Soni.

 

3. What is the weightage of pathology in the NEET PG exam?

In the NEET-PG exam, approximately 12 questions are asked from the pathology subject.

 

4. What is the subject weightage of pathology in INI-CET?

In INI-CET, approximately 13–16 questions are asked from the pathology subject.

 

5. How to prepare for pathology for the NEET-PG?

Preparing for pathology in MBBS requires a systematic and comprehensive approach. Establish a strong foundation in fundamental subjects. Familiarize yourself with basic terminologies and then move on to sections. Attend regular classes and practical sessions. Take proper notes. Create a well-organized study schedule. Grasp the fundamental concepts. Opt for recommended standard textbooks, pathology atlases, and pathology review books. Thoroughly study all the systems along with prevalent conditions and diagnostic methods. Engage in active learning methods such as concept mapping, creating flashcards, flowcharts, mind maps, diagrams, and more. Also, solve clinical case scenarios to apply theoretical knowledge to practical situations. Solve practice questions for all the topics for self-evaluation and better understanding. Keep yourself updated with recent advances and research. Attend webinars, workshops, and conferences. Enroll in the Pathology for UnderGrads online course by Prof. Harsh Mohan, Prof. Ramadas Nayak, and Dr. Debasis Gochhait to reinforce your learning.

The National Medical Commission (NMC) has achieved the coveted World Federation for Medical Education (WFME) Recognition Status for a tenure of 10 years. This is a prestigious achievement for India’s medical education. This esteemed award proves NMC’s steadfast dedication to the highest standards in medical education and accreditation.

The WFME recognition will now enable Indian medical graduates to pursue postgraduate training and practice in other countries that require WFME recognition, such as Australia, USA, Canada, and New Zealand.

The World Federation for Medical Education (WFME) is a global organization dedicated to raising the standard of medical education all over the world. The WFME accreditation programme is crucial in ensuring that medical institutions uphold and adhere to the highest levels of global education and training standards.

Dr. Yogender Malik, Member of the Ethics and Medical Registration Board and Head Media Division at NMC, on this remarkable achievement, said, “WFME’s recognition underscores that the quality of medical education in India adheres to global standards. This accolade empowers our students with the opportunity to pursue their careers anywhere in the world, while also making India an attractive destination for international students due to our globally recognized standards.”

Under this accreditation, all the 706 existing medical colleges in India will be considered WFME accredited, and the new colleges being set up in the coming 10 years will also be considered as WFME accredited. This will also benefit NMC in enhancing the quality and standards of Indian medical education by aligning them with global benchmarks. This will facilitate academic collaborations and promote continuous improvement and innovation in medical education.

Now NMC being WFME accredited has opened the doors for all the medical students for ECFMG and USMLE. All Indian students will become eligible to apply for the Education Commission on Foreign Medical Graduates and United States Medical Licensing Examination.

The National Medical Council, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare in a press release dated 20th September 2023 has announced this remarkable update.

Pathology is a medical specialty that deals with the causes and nature of disease. By delivering early and accurate diagnoses, which are crucial for successful treatment, pathologists play a crucial role in patient care.

A pathologist works with the causes and characteristics of illness and employs information acquired from the laboratory application of the biological, chemical, and physical sciences to aid in diagnosis, prognosis, and therapy. For the diagnosis and monitoring of illness, this specialist uses data obtained from microscopic inspection of tissue samples, cells, and bodily fluids as well as from clinical laboratory testing on bodily fluids and secretions. By delivering early and accurate diagnoses, which are crucial for successful treatment, pathologists play a crucial role in patient care.

If you are good at going with a microscope as your friend than a stethoscope, then pathology is a great option to choose as a specialty. This specialty is more of working behind the scenes sitting for long hours diagnosing rather than directly dealing with the patients.

Steps for Becoming a Pathologist

• Complete your 12th standard in the Science stream with a minimum of 55% aggregate.
• Then you have two options for your undergraduate degree, either you can go with an MBBS undergraduate degree, or you can go with a B.Sc. in Pathology. The former is more into medicine side while the latter is a basic health and allied sciences degree. Depending on your preference and educational qualification, you can choose between both. To pursue an MBBS degree, you must crack the NEET-UG entrance examination with a competitive score. You can opt for a government or private college for any of the undergraduate courses as per your preference and score. Always seek proper guidance before choosing a medical college.

Must Read: Things to know before choosing a medical college.

• After completing graduation, you must complete your postgraduation in pathology. If you did an MBBS, then go with an MD in Pathology degree and if you opted for BSc then go with an MSc Pathology degree. To pursue MD Pathology, you need to score high in the NEET-PG/INI-CET and for M.Sc. Pathology, you need to follow the admission procedure of the particular college.
• Then after completing postgraduation, you need to gain experience, then you have the option to pursue fellowship courses in various pathology subspecialities. You can also opt for a Ph.D. programme.

Apart from a degree, you also have the option to pursue a Diploma in Pathology or relevant certification courses.

Top Medical Colleges to Pursue MD Pathology in India

1. AIIMS, Delhi
2. Christian Medical College, Vellore
3. Grant Government Medical College, Mumbai
4. AFMC, Pune
5. JIPMER, Puducherry
6. Kasturba Medical College, Manipal
7. IPGME&R and SSKM Hospital, Kolkata
8. KGMU, Lucknow
9. St. John’s Medical College, Bangalore
10. Lady Hardinge Medical College, New Delhi
11. Maulana Azad Medical College, New Delhi
12. VMMC, New Delhi

Pathologists employ a wide range of instruments and methods to investigate illness, such as:

• Microscopical analysis of tissue samples: Pathologists use microscopes to analyse tiny slices of tissue in search of anomalies that might be signs of illness.
• Testing in the laboratory: Pathologists do several tests in the lab on tissues and bodily fluids to determine the concentrations of various chemicals, including hormones, enzymes, and proteins. These examinations can support illness diagnosis, track disease development, and evaluate therapy effectiveness.
• Autopsies: Pathologists examine a deceased person’s body after death to ascertain the cause of death and learn more about any ailments they may have had.

List of Pathology Subspecialities

Pathology is a broad specialty that encompasses a variety of subspecialties, including:

• Transfusion Medicine
• Chemical Pathology
• Cytopathology
• Dermatopathology
• Histopathology
• Forensic Pathology
• Hematopathology/Hematology
• Molecular Genetic Pathology
• Neuropathology
• Pediatric Pathology
• Pulmonary Pathology
• Renal Pathology
• Surgical Pathology
• Clinical Pathology
• Molecular Pathology

Skills Required for Becoming a Pathologist

A skilled pathologist should be well-versed in the following:

Establish a diagnosis for common and difficult clinical issues using histopathology (surgical pathology) and cytopathology specimens, blood and bone marrow examinations, and different laboratory medicine tests (clinical pathology, Blood Banking (Transfusion Medicine), and clinical biochemistry.

Construct correlations between clinical and laboratory data to ensure that clinical disease symptoms can be explained.

Suggest the proper samples and tests to conduct to reach a diagnosis in a difficult case.

Compare pathology results from an autopsy with those from the clinic, the causes of disease-related deaths, and their miscorrelations (other than isolated metabolic causes).

Should be competent to instruct pathology to nursing students, postgraduates, undergraduates, and paramedical professionals, including lab staff.

Be able to work as a team, cultivate a cooperative attitude among coworkers, and communicate with patients, clinicians, and other coworkers to offer the best diagnostic or opinion.

Always uphold ethical values, maintain an appropriate demeanour in interactions with patients, family members, and other medical professionals, and respect the patient’s rights, including access to information and a second opinion.

Capable of carrying out standard procedures in a pathology lab, such as grossing specimens, processing, slicing paraffin and frozen sections, and staining.

Capable of routinely performing non-invasive outpatient procedures like venipuncture, finger pricks, fine needle aspirations of superficial lumps, and bone marrow aspirates in order to collect specimens, and to give appropriate assistance to colleagues performing invasive procedures like a biopsy or an imaging-guided biopsy.

Salary and Scope of Pathologist

Pathology is a highly promising job as no diagnosis is complete without pathology. Pathologists are in great demand, and the job outlook for them is predicted to improve over the coming ten years at a faster-than-average rate. Pathologists can find employment in a range of places, such as hospitals, clinics, research facilities, diagnostic labs, and governmental organisations. After completing your medical education and gaining experience in Pathology, you can open your diagnostic pathology centre.

Pathologists have a highly diverse range of employment options and several prospects for progression. Anatomic pathology, clinical pathology, and forensic pathology are just a few examples of the areas of pathology in which pathologists might specialise.

For those with a passion for science and medicine, attention to detail, and strong analytical abilities, pathology is a good speciality. Additionally, pathologists must be able to operate both alone and collaboratively. On average, a pathologist earns 50K to 80K per month and it varies depending on the area of employment.

The job profiles associated with pathologist include Clinical Pathologist, Professor/Lecturer, Forensic Pathologist, Clinical Researcher Associate, Medical Writer, Transfusion Medicine Specialist, and more.

Best Books for Studying Pathology

• Prof Harsh Mohan’s Textbook of Pathology
• Exam Preparatory Manual for Undergraduates Pathology by Ramadas Nayak and Sharda Rai
• Rapid Review of Hematology by Ramadas Nayak and Sharda Rai
• Review of Pathology and Genetics by Gobind Rai Garg and Sparsh Gupta
• Robbins & Cotran Pathologic Basis of Diseases by Vinay Kumar, Abul K. Abbas, and Jon C. Aster
• Fundamentals of Pathology by Husain A. Sattar
• Surgical Pathology of the GI Tract, Liver, Biliary Tract and Pancreas
• Cytopathology Review by Fang Fan and Ivan Danjanov
• Gray’s Diagnostic Cytopathology
• Rosai and Ackerman’s Surgical Pathology
• Atlas and Text of Haematology by Tejinder Singh
• Orell’s Atlas of Aspiration Cytology
• Lever’s Dermatopathology

By offering precise and fast diagnoses, which are necessary for efficient treatment, pathologists play a crucial role in the healthcare industry. They also strive to create innovative diagnostic methods and disease-specific therapies.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q1. What should I do after 12th to become a Pathologist?

Ans. After completing the 12th standard, either you can go with an MBBS undergraduate degree, or you can go with a B.Sc. in Pathology. The former is more into medicine side while the latter is a basic health and allied sciences degree. Depending on your preference, you can choose between both. To pursue an MBBS degree, you must crack the NEET-UG entrance examination with a competitive score, and for a B.Sc., you need to follow the admission procedure of the particular college. You can opt for a government or private college for any of the undergraduate courses as per your preference and entrance exam score. Always seek proper guidance before choosing a medical college.

Q2. What are the career prospects for pathologists?

Ans. Pathologists can find employment in a range of places, such as hospitals, clinics, research facilities, diagnostic labs, and governmental organisations. After completing your medical education and gaining experience in Pathology, you can open your diagnostic pathology centre. The job profiles associated with pathologist include Clinical Pathologist, Professor/Lecturer, Forensic Pathologist, Clinical Researcher Associate, Medical Writer, Transfusion Medicine Specialist, and more.

Q3. How good is pathology as a career?

Ans. Pathology is a highly promising job as no diagnosis is complete without pathology. Pathologists are in great demand, and the job outlook for them is predicted to improve over the coming ten years at a faster-than-average rate. Pathologists can find employment in a range of places, such as hospitals, clinics, research facilities, diagnostic labs, and governmental organisations. After completing your medical education and gaining experience in Pathology, you can open your diagnostic pathology centre. Pathologists have a highly diverse range of employment options and several prospects for progression. Anatomic pathology, clinical pathology, and forensic pathology are just a few examples of the areas of pathology in which pathologists might specialise.

Q4. What is the salary of an MBBS MD pathologist in India?

Ans. On average, a pathologist earns 50K to 80K per month and it varies depending on the area of employment. The job profiles associated with pathologist include Clinical Pathologist, Professor/Lecturer, Forensic Pathologist, Clinical Researcher Associate, Medical Writer, Transfusion Medicine Specialist, and more.

Click here to get conceptual clarity on MBBS subjects.

Global health comprises the biological and clinical facets of diseases along with the social, economic, political, and environmental determinants of health. The ability to confine health issues inside national borders has diminished as the globe becomes more linked.

The contribution of technology to the medical sector is unparalleled. With the years passing by technology is improving at the highest pace in the medicine sector. Nowadays, the use of AI, and the development of new therapies, drugs, drug development, and surgical procedures, have made complex medical procedures less complex and paved a path to minimally invasive surgeries. Millions of individuals throughout the world are having their lives improved as a result of these developments.

Global health has improved recently despite several obstacles like poverty, pandemics, disease outbreaks, conflicts, and climate change. Maternal and child fatalities have dropped significantly and since the development of new vaccinations, infectious illness spread has also been reduced. Governments and organisations have also boosted their funding for global health concerns and also significantly invested in newer technologies. The current developments in the healthcare industry are beneficial to global health and are an area with significant potential to enhance the health of people all over the world and in the medical field. We can improve the health of people all across the world by addressing the issues and embracing the possibilities.

Medical students and professionals must keep themselves updated and knowledgeable about the recent advancements in healthcare as it is going to impact their career growth to a great extent. To escalate the growth of your medical career, it is mandated to upskill.

The recent advancements in the global healthcare and medicine field are significant for several reasons. By offering more precise diagnoses, earlier illness detection, and more individualised treatment regimens, they have the potential to:

• Improve the quality of care for patients.
• By enabling remote monitoring and care and minimising the need for in-person visits, healthcare may be made more accessible and cheaper.
• Increase the effectiveness of healthcare delivery by simplifying administrative procedures and facilitating information exchange between healthcare professionals.
• Develop novel therapies and preventative measures to lessen the impact of chronic illnesses.
• Boost public health by keeping track of and rapidly and efficiently addressing illness outbreaks.

Below mentioned are technological advancements in medicine and global healthcare:

 

Artificial Intelligence and Healthcare

With the introduction of unprecedented tools for patient care, treatment, and diagnosis, artificial intelligence (AI) is drastically changing the healthcare industry.

For researchers interested in global health, AI-driven health interventions fall into four categories: diagnosis, patient morbidity or mortality risk assessment, disease outbreak prediction and surveillance, and health policy and planning. Machine learning, signal processing, data mining, natural language processing, and other forms of AI are applied in the healthcare sector.

Here are a few current applications of AI in healthcare:

• Diagnosis and treatment: Artificial intelligence (AI) paves the way for the screening of disease and can analyse medical images like X-rays and scans to identify illnesses early and more accurately than humans. AI may be used to create individualised treatment regimens for individuals based on their unique traits and requirements. Other applications of artificial intelligence being used in medicine include Digital chest radiographs, cervical cancer screening, estimating perinatal risk factors, and characterising and predicting the global spread of the Zika virus.
• Drug discovery: Artificial intelligence (AI) may be used to search through extensive databases of chemicals and compounds to find possible new medicines. AI may also be used to foresee how pharmaceuticals would react in the body, lowering the possibility of adverse effects.
• Personalised medicine: Artificial intelligence (AI) may be used to examine a patient’s genetic information, medical history, and lifestyle choices in order to develop a personalised treatment plan that has the highest chance of success.
• Risk assessment: AI may be used to predict the risk of disease and figure out how likely a patient is to have cancer or heart disease. Patients can utilise this knowledge to guide lifestyle adjustments that will lower their risk.
• Healthcare administration: AI may be used to automate processes like appointment scheduling, patient record management, and claim processing. This might free up medical personnel to concentrate on treating patients.
• Telemedicine: Platforms that employ AI in telemedicine can be used to offer doctor consultations via the Internet. Patients with limited access to healthcare in remote locations may particularly benefit from this.
• Robotics: Surgery, pharmaceutical dispensing, and other medical services can be carried out by AI-powered robots. This might aid in enhancing the effectiveness and precision of healthcare delivery.
• Big data analytics: Using AI, enormous databases of healthcare data may be analysed to spot trends and patterns. The diagnosis and treatment of illnesses can be made better with the use of this knowledge.
• Virtual assistants: AI-driven virtual assistants may be used to set up appointments, answer patients’ inquiries, and offer information about their conditions. The patient experience may be enhanced as a result of this.

The future of AI in healthcare is very promising. The use of AI in healthcare is still in its early stages, but it has the potential to revolutionize the way we diagnose, treat, and manage diseases. In the years to come, as AI technology advances, it is anticipated to have a more significant influence on the healthcare industry.

 

Advances in Gene Editing Technology

The science of gene editing is expanding quickly. The way we treat illnesses is changing as a result of gene editing tools like CRISPR-Cas9. These technologies can be used to fix genetic flaws that lead to disease or to add new genes that can offer disease protection.

The following are some of the developments in gene editing technologies that are being investigated for medical applications:

• CRISPR-Cas9: A protein called Cas9 is used by CRISPR-Cas9 to cut DNA at a precise spot. This enables precise gene replacement, deletion, and insertion. The most popular gene editing technology, CRISPR-Cas9, is being researched for a number of uses, including the treatment of HIV, cystic fibrosis, sickle cell disease, and hereditary illnesses.

For instance, in cancer patients, CRISPR-Cas9 is being utilised to create novel cancer medicines that can target and eliminate cancer cells. CAR T-cell treatments, a sort of immunotherapy that employs a patient’s immune cells to combat cancer, are being developed by researchers utilising CRISPR-Cas9.

• Base editing: A more recent gene editing technique, base editing allows you to alter specific DNA nucleotides without actually cutting the DNA. Compared to CRISPR-Cas9, this makes it less likely to result in unwanted side effects. For the therapy of conditions including cystic fibrosis and Duchenne muscular dystrophy, base editing is being researched.
• RNA editing: An approach to gene editing that can target RNA molecules rather than DNA. This can be utilised to treat conditions like certain cancers that are brought on by RNA alterations.
• Gene therapy: Gene therapy is a treatment that involves introducing genes into cells to correct a genetic defect. Numerous illnesses, including cancer, HIV, and hereditary ailments, have been treated by gene therapy.

These are only a handful of the gene editing innovations that are being investigated for medical applications. Technology’s continued advancement will probably have a significant influence on how we manage diseases in the years to come.

 

Development of Precision Medicine

A person’s unique genetic makeup, lifestyle, and environment are all taken into consideration when developing a medical treatment plan in precision/personalised medicine. This may result in a more effective and targeted treatment with fewer adverse effects.

Personalising medicine may be done in a variety of ways. Typical strategies include:

• Genetic testing includes examining a person’s DNA to see if there are any mutations or variances that might impact their likelihood of contracting a certain disease or their reaction to a particular medication.
• Biomarkers are quantifiable indications of a biological condition or state. Biomarkers can be used to monitor a patient’s response to therapy or to spot those who are most likely to catch a particular disease.
• Environmental factors, such as pollutant exposure, food, and exercise impact how people respond to therapy as well as the development of many diseases.

Precision medicine is becoming more and more feasible as we understand more about the human genome and the part genetics plays in disease. We can create more effective and focused therapies that may result in improvement by taking into consideration a person’s particular demands.

Here are some examples of current applications of precision medicine:

• High-risk cancer patients are identified via genetic testing, and targeted medicines are created that are more efficient for those who have certain genetic alterations.
• Biomarkers are being utilised to monitor an individual’s risk of developing heart disease and to pinpoint those who will benefit from certain therapies the most.
• Scientists are examining the genetic component of Alzheimer’s disease and creating targeted treatments that might be more efficient for those who carry particular genetic abnormalities.

Some of the challenges and limitations of precision medicine include cost, accuracy, accessibility, and regulation.

Personalised medicine is a promising subject with the potential to enhance millions of people’s lives despite these difficulties. It is anticipated to become more accessible, inexpensive, and accurate as technology advances.

 

Development of Telemedicine and Remote Healthcare 

Telemedicine and remote healthcare allow patients to receive care from a doctor or other healthcare provider without having to travel to a doctor’s office or hospital. This can help with healthcare access, particularly in remote locations. The COVID-19 pandemic has spurred telemedicine and remote healthcare development to a great extent. These services are increasingly enticing to patients and providers alike because of the requirement to maintain social distance and avoid in-person visits to healthcare institutions. There are several advantages to telemedicine and remote medical care, such as better access to healthcare, lower healthcare expenses, increased patient satisfaction, and better patient results.

Remote healthcare services and telemedicine come in a wide variety. The most popular ones are Tele-education, remote patient monitoring, and virtual doctor appointments.

Additionally, there are several drawbacks to telemedicine and remote treatment, such as security and privacy issues, a lack of financing, technical issues, and a shortage of skilled providers.

Despite these impediments, telemedicine and remote healthcare are expanding quickly and playing a bigger role in the healthcare system. These services are expected to become progressively more common and available as technology advances.

Here are some of the future trends in telemedicine and remote healthcare:

• Increasing the use of artificial intelligence (AI): AI may be applied to personalise treatment regimens, increase the precision of diagnoses, and keep track of patient’s health.
• Development of novel telehealth technology: More thorough and individualised treatment will be feasible thanks to new gadgets like wearable sensors and virtual reality headsets.
• Expansion into new areas: Telemedicine and remote healthcare will be utilised to deliver care in new areas, such as managing chronic diseases and mental health.

 

Application of 3D Printing in Healthcare

3D printing in medicine is being used to create customised medical items including prostheses, implants, and surgical guides. This innovation might save expenditures while raising the standard of treatment. A rapidly developing technology, 3D printing has a wide range of potential uses in the healthcare sector. Among the most widespread applications of 3D printing in the medical field, some are mentioned below:

• Producing patient-specific medical devices: 3D printing may be used to produce personalised medical items like implants, prostheses, and surgical guides that are tailored to the anatomy of a single patient. In addition to lowering the risk of problems, this can enhance the device’s fit and functionality.
• Building medical models and educating healthcare professionals: 3D printing may be used to build accurate representations of the human body’s organs, tissues, and tumours. These models can be used to aid in the planning and execution of intricate treatments as well as the education of patients about their conditions. This can assist them in picking up new abilities and methods, as well as in practising approaches in a secure setting.
• Creating novel medications and treatments: Tissue scaffolds for cell culture and intricate drug delivery systems may be made using 3D printing. This can aid in the development of novel treatments and medications by researchers for a number of disorders.
• Customising care: Using 3D printing, it is possible to develop treatments and drugs that are specifically suited to the requirements of a certain patient. This might increase the therapy’s efficacy and security.

Here are some specific examples of how 3D printing is being used in healthcare today:

• A company named Materialise has created a 3D-printed breast implant that is specifically designed for women with tuberous breasts. This type of breast deformity is often difficult to treat with traditional implants, but the 3D-printed implant can provide a more natural and comfortable fit.
• A team of researchers at the University of California, San Diego has developed a 3D-printed surgical guide that can be used to remove brain tumors with greater precision and accuracy.
• A company named Organovo has developed a 3D printer that can be used to create human tissue. This tissue can be used to study diseases, develop new drugs, and create personalized medical implants.

These are some of the numerous uses for 3D printing that are now being made in the medical field. As technology advances, it will probably have a bigger influence on the healthcare sector, enhancing the standard of treatment and enhancing accessibility for all.

The use of blockchain technology to increase the security and effectiveness of healthcare data exchange is one of the significant developments being made in the world of healthcare. Smart technologies, particularly wearable sensors, are being developed to extract therapeutically significant health-related data from physical (body) indicators like heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature, respiration rate, and body motion. The technology has now also come up with immersive virtual and augmented reality training and education in the medical field.

Advancements in technology, increased investment in global health, partnerships, collaborations among the government, organizations, and individuals, and innovations altogether make a significant contribution to addressing the challenges to global health and improving health outcomes. The rapid pace of technical improvement has made these developments feasible. These technologies will have a bigger influence on global healthcare as they advance.

 

Obstetrics and Gynecology (OBGYN) is a branch of medicine that deals with the health of women, including the reproductive system, pregnancy, and childbirth. OBGYN is a compulsory clinical subject in the MBBS curriculum. Being an MBBS student, you will get hands-on experience in OBGYN during clinical rotations. You will observe and assist doctors in delivering babies, performing surgeries, and treating gynecological conditions. OBGYN is a challenging but rewarding field of medicine.

MBBS Prof Exam Pattern

The OBGYN Prof exam comprises two theory papers of 100 marks each and a practical examination of 200 marks. The theory exam consists of short-answer questions, long-answer questions, case-based questions, and objective-type questions. The practical examination includes clinical examination and viva.

Recommended books for Obstetrics and Gynecology

The most preferred books for studying OBGYN in MBBS are DC Dutta’s Textbook of Obstetrics (Including Perinatology and Contraception), DC Dutta’s Textbook of Gynecology, Shaw’s Textbook of Gynecology, Self-Assessment and Review Gynecology, Self-Assessment and Review Obstetrics, Bedside Clinics in Gynecology, and Ward Rounds in Obstetrics and Gynecology.

Subject weightage in NEET-PG and INI-CET

Concentrate on early preparation for both professional exams and competitive exams, especially if you want to pursue postgraduate studies. The subject weightage of Obstetrics and Gynecology in NEET-PG is about 25–30 questions and about 15-20 questions in INI-CET. The subject weightage clearly shows the importance of the subject in both NEET-PG and INI-CET. Try not to miss any high-yielding topics in obstetrics and Gynecology.

High-yielding topics are a crucial component of a productive study plan that will improve your test-taking efficiency. You must carefully schedule your study sessions, giving priority to time management, the course’s high-yielding topics, and, most importantly, your health.

Important and High-Yielding Topics of OBGYN for MBBS Prof Exams, NEET-PG, and INI-CET

Carcinoma Cervix

Aetiology and Staging of Carcinoma Endometrium

Postmenopausal Bleeding in Diabetics and Hypertensives

Hysteroscopy

Endometrial Ablation

PCOS

Letrozole and Metformin Pharmacology

Ovulation Induction

Carcinoma Ovary Staging

Germ cell tumors, especially Dermoid and Dysgerminomas

Laparotomy

Raloxofene and Bisphosphonates

HRT Indications and Contraindications

Testicular Feminization Syndrome

Treatment of CAH

Turners Syndrome

Klinefelter’s Syndrome

Antepartum and Intrapartum Surveillance

NST and CTG

Biophysical profile and dynamics of amniotic fluid

Doppler of the Uterine Artery

Ductus venosus ‘M’ wave pattern

Malpresentation and Malposition

Placenta-accrete case

Management of PPH

Blood Component Therapy

Management of Shoulder Dystocia

Stages of labour

Ectopic Pregnancy

Molar Pregnancy

Cell-free DNA

Preterm Labour

APH

Sterilisation Surgeries

COVID Pregnancy

Gestational Diabetes Mellitus

Cesarean section of childbirth

Ultrasound in Pregnancy

Diabetic Mother

Pre-eclampsia

Ca Cervix

Ovarian Cancer

Dysfunctional Uterine Bleeding

Uterine Prolapse

Fibroid

Postmenopausal Bleeding

Contraception, especially Oral Contraceptive Pills

Endometriosis

Pelvic Inflammatory Diseases

Stress Urinary Incontinence

Important Topics in OBGYN for the Practical Examination

OBGYN is a vast but rewarding clinical subject, and hence, it is highly crucial to learn and excel in the practical curriculum as well. During MBBS, you learn about the anatomy and physiology of the female reproductive system, as well as the diagnosis of common gynecological and obstetrical conditions. You also gain experience performing pelvic exams and other diagnostic procedures. To score well in MBBS practical exams, you should be familiar with the basic principles and procedures of OBGYN and be able to perform the essential clinical skills.

Some of the important topics for the OBGYN practical exam include:

Common Surgical Instruments

Pelvic Examination

History-taking and Clinical assessment of common OBGYN conditions

Bimanual Examination

Vaginal Ultrasound

Speculum Examination

Pap Smear: Cervical Cytology

Breast Examination

Contraception

Infertility

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)

Normal Labor and Delivery

Postpartum Care

Gynecological Surgery Procedures

Here are some additional tips for preparing for the MBBS practical exams in OBGYN:

• Practice performing the pelvic examination and other clinical skills on mannequins or other simulated patients.
• Read textbooks, review articles, and case studies on OBGYN.
• Attend lectures and tutorials on OBGYN procedures and examinations.
• Shadow an OBGYN physician to get hands-on experience.
• Take practice exams to assess your knowledge and skills.

By following these tips, you can be well-prepared for the MBBS practical exams in OBGYN.

To ace your examinations and escalate your learning, you can enroll in the OBGYN for Undergrads course by Dr. K. Srinivas. The content and video lectures in the course are aligned with the CBME curriculum and also incorporate knowledge from the various standard textbooks. This comprehensive course is well integrated with knowledge of clinical obstetrics and gynecological examinations, case discussions, and highly illustrative clinical and radiological images. This course by the eminent faculty provides access to video lectures, notes, self-assessment questions, and clinical cases.

Case discussions and Qbanks of Obstetrics and Gynecology acquaint the students with the commonly asked questions during the practical exam and viva voce. Hence, this course is ideal for OBGYN students to excel in Obstetrics and Gynecology subject and to eventually score high in MBBS theory exams, practical exams, viva voce, and competitive entrance exams.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs):

Q1. What is the difference between a gynecologist and an obstetrician?

Ans. An obstetrician is a doctor who specializes in the care of women and their babies during pregnancy and childbirth whereas a Gynecologist is a doctor who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of female reproductive disorders.

Q2. What are the high-yield topics in obstetrics and gynecology?

Ans. The high-yield topics in obstetrics and gynecology are Endometriosis, Pelvic Inflammatory Diseases, Stress Urinary Incontinence,

Postmenopausal bleeding in diabetics and hypertensives, Hysteroscopy, Endometrial Ablation, PCOS, Letrozole and metformin pharmacology, Antepartum and intrapartum surveillance, Malpresentation and malposition, Management of PPH, Blood component therapy, Management of Shoulder Dystocia and more.

Q3. Which book is best for OBG MBBS?

Ans. The most preferred books for studying OBGYN in MBBS are DC Dutta’s Textbook of Obstetrics (Including Perinatology and Contraception), DC Dutta’s Textbook of Gynecology, Shaw’s Textbook of Gynecology, Self-Assessment and Review Gynecology, Self-Assessment and Review Obstetrics, Bedside Clinics in Gynecology, and Ward Rounds in Obstetrics and Gynecology.

Forensic Medicine and Toxicology subject is included in the third prof of the MBBS curriculum. The main objective of teaching forensic medicine to undergraduate students is to create a doctor who is knowledgeable about medico-legal duty while practicing medicine. You will also be able to make observations and draw conclusions using logical inquiries into criminal situations and related medicolegal issues in the proper direction. You learn about applying law to medical practice, and adherence to medical ethics regulations.

MBBS Prof Exam Pattern

According to the CBME curriculum, the MBBS prof exam of the Forensic Medicine and Toxicology subject comprises one theory exam of 100 marks, and the practical examination (Practical/Clinical + Viva) of 100 marks. The theoretical exam has a variety of question types, such as structured essays (long answer questions, or LAQ), short response questions, and objective questions (MCQs and IBQs).

Recommended Books of FMT

Recommended books for FMT in MBBS include Review of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology and Recent Advances in Forensic Medicine and Toxicology (Volume-1 and 2) by Gautam Biswas, The Essentials of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology by KS Narayan Reddy and OP Murty, Forensic Medicine by J Magendran, and The Synopsis of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology by KS Narayan Reddy.

Subject Weightage of FMT in NEET-PG and INI-CET

Concentrate on early preparation for both professional exams and competitive entrance exams, especially when you want to pursue postgraduate study. The two main entrance examinations in India are NEET-PG/NExT and INI-CET to get admission into PG courses. The subject weightage of the FMT subject is about 10 questions in NEET-PG and 8 questions in the INI-CET entrance examination.

Important Topics of FMT for MBBS Prof Exams, NEET-PG, and INI-CET Entrance Examination

High-yielding topics are a crucial component of a productive study plan that will improve your test-taking efficiency. You must carefully schedule your study sessions, giving priority to time management, the course’s high-yielding themes, and, most importantly, your health. FMT in MBBS is a multidisciplinary subject and is among the high-scoring subjects. The subject requires frequent revision for better retention.

Here’s a list of high-yielding topics of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology for NEET-PG, INI-CET, and MBBS Prof exams:

Medical Jurisprudence and Ethics

Functions of MCI

Functions of SMC

Professional Misconduct and Penal Erasure

Difference between Professional Negligence and Infamous Misconduct

Consent: Types, Exceptions, Age of Consent, Inform Consent, False Consent

Difference between Civil and Criminal Negligence

Res Ipsa Loquitur

Defenses against negligence

Acts Related to Medical Practice

Transplantation of Human Organ Act, 1994

Consumer Protection Act, 1986

Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act, 1971

Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2012

The Mental Healthcare Act, 2017

Legal Procedure

Inquest

Courts of Law

Difference between Dying Declaration and Dying Deposition

Exceptions to Oral Evidence

Duties of a doctor in the witness box

Capital Punishment

Type of Evidence and Witness

Homicide

Identification

Cephalic index

Intersex

Age determination by dentition, x-rays, and mandible

Gustafson’s method

MLI of age

MLI of scar, tattoo marks

Dactylography

Fingerprint Identification

Difference between antemortem and PM clot

Autopsy

Exhumation

Forensic Psychiatry

Delusion

Hallucination

Impulse

Difference between psychosis and neurosis

Lucid interval

Schizophrenia

Testamentary capacity

Section 84 IPC

Somnambulism

Erectile Dysfunction and Sterility

Impotence, Sterility, Frigidity, Quod

Vaginismus

Artificial Insemination

Surrogate mother

Causes of erectile dysfunction and sterility in males

Causes of impotence and sterility in females

Virginity, pregnancy, and delivery

Hymen

Difference between true virgin and false virgin

Presumptive, probable, and positive signs of pregnancy

Superfecundation and superfetation and their MLI

Difference between nulliparous and parous uterus

Sexual Offences

Classification of sexual offences

Section 375 IPC

Punishment of rape 376 IPC

Examination of rape victim/survivor

Locard’s exchange principle

Sodomy/Buggery

Tribadism/Lesbianism

Sexual paraphilias types

Exhibitonism, frotteurism/toucherism

Seminal strains test

Injuries

Grievous hurt, section 320 IPC

Joule burn

Classification of thermal injuries

Heat hyperpyrexia/Heat stroke

Burns

Difference between pugilistic attitude and rigor mortis

Skull fractures

Extradural/Epidural hematoma

Bullet types

Components of gun powder

Abrasion

Contusion

Laceration

Ectopic/Migratory bruise

Fabricated/forged wounds

Intracranial hemorrhages

Cold injuries- frostbite

Would ballistics

Asphyxia

Causes/Classification of asphyxia deaths

Lynching

Difference between hanging and strangulation

Cafe coronary syndrome

Post-mortem examination of a drowning case

Diatom test

Sexual asphyxia

Death/Thanatology

Rigor mortis/Stiffness of death

Cadaveric spasm

Heat stiffening

Order of putrefaction

Mummification

Brain stem death

Cause, manner, and mode of death

Sudden death

Tache noire

Infanticide and Child Abuse

Hydrostatic test

Cause of infant death

Shaken baby syndrome or infantile whiplash syndrome

Difference between live born, dead born, and stillborn fetus

Hydrostatic test

Toxicology

Section 284 IPC

Classification of poison

Organophosphorus compounds poisoning

Alphos poisoning

Vitriolage

Chronic arsenic poisoning

Hydragyrism

Phossy jaw/Lucifer’s jaw/Glass jaw

Sui

Difference between true and artificial bruise

Signs and symptoms of Ophitoxemia

Snake poisoning

Section 85 IPC

Widmark’s formula

LSD

Date rape drugs

Others

Poat-mortem artefacts

Transportation injuries

Confirmatory tests for blood

Medico-legal application of blood groups

Precipitin methods

To get conceptual clarity in the FMT modules and learn in a simplified manner, subscribe to DigiNerve’s online FMT course. The Forensic Medicine and Toxicology for UnderGrads course is well conceptualized by eminent faculty, Dr. Gautam Biswas according to the CBME curriculum. Application-based learning has been given top priority, and even the test question format is created to gauge students’ clinical expertise.   The training is designed for medical students to help them be ready for both their university examinations and the NEET PG/NExT Exam. The lectures for the course cover every relevant topic in an interesting manner. In order to help students comprehend ideas better, the course includes flowcharts, animations, brief films, diagrams, and well-integrated MCQs.

Click here to know the right way to approach FMT in MBBS.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs):

Q1. What are the important topics of FMT in MBBS?

Ans. The important topics of FMT in MBBS include Legal Procedure, Identification, Thanatology, Asphyxia, Injuries, Rape, General toxicology, OPC poisoning, Snakebite, Medicinal poisoning, Autopsy, fingerprint identification, Burns, Skull fracture, and more.

Q2. Which are the recommended books of Anatomy for MBBS students?

Ans. Recommended books for FMT in MBBS include Review of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology and Recent Advances in Forensic Medicine and Toxicology (Volume-1 and 2) by Gautam Biswas, The Essentials of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology by KS Narayan Reddy and OP Murty, Forensic Medicine by J Magendran, and The Synopsis of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology by KS Narayan Reddy.

Q3. What is the weightage of FMT in the NEET PG exam?

Ans. The weightage of FMT in NEET PG is approximately 10 questions.

Q4. Where can I find an affordable yet comprehensive online course for forensic medicine?

The best forensic medicine online course 2023 is Forensic Medicine and Toxicology for UnderGrads by Dr. Gautam Biswas. The course is comprehensive, clinically up-to-date, and quite affordable.

The Chapter 2 of the NMC Update describes the broad outline of the National Exit Exam, including general features of steps 1 and 2, NExT scores, nature of scores, minimum passing score, etc.

General Features of the NExT Exam

The NExT Exam shall comprise two separate exams referred to as “Steps”.

Step 1: Theoretical Examination

Step 2: Practical/Clinical and Viva Voce Examination

 

NExT Step 1

1.NExT Step 1 shall be a theoretical and Computer-based/Online examination.

2. It shall comprise one or more types of multiple-choice questions.

3. This shall be a Centralized Common All India Examination that will be held by a body designated by the commission as the conducting authority.

4. The examination shall include six papers covering topics from both Part 1 and 2 of the III MBBS/Final MBBS programme:

• Medicine and allied disciplines
• Surgery and allied disciplines
• Obstetrics and Gynecology
• Pediatrics
• Otorhinolaryngology
• Ophthalmology

(Applied aspects of all subjects covered under I MBBS and II MBBS and Applied aspects of all subjects covered under III MBBS/Final MBBS Part l)

5. Students who have completed their III MBBS/Final MBBS course from a recognized medical college shall be eligible to appear for the examination.

6. NExT Step 1 Examination shall be held twice a year in the months of May and November tentatively.

7. There shall be no restriction on the number of attempts to participate in NExT Step 1 provided that the candidate has completed both the NExT Step 1 and NExT Step 2 exams within ten years of enrolling in the MBBS Course.

8. There is no cap on the number of times for attempting the NExT Step 1 Regular Examination to improve your score but you can only go for the improvement after completing your NExT Step 2.

9. The III MBBS/Final MBBS Part 1 and III MBBS/Final MBBS Part II Practical/clinical examinations will continue to be held conventionally unless otherwise stated by the Commission and the NExT Step 1 will replace the traditional university/institutional Theory Examinations of the III MBBS/Final MBBS Part II.

 

NExT Step 2

1. The NExT Step 2 shall be a Practical/Clinical and viva voce examination comprising seven clinical subjects/disciplines:

• Medicine and allied disciplines
• Surgery and allied disciplines
• Obstetrics and Gynecology
• Pediatrics
• Otorhinolaryngology
• Ophthalmology
• Orthopaedics and PMR (Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation)

2. The exam shall be objectively structured, clinical case-based, and use simulated cases and patients to evaluate practical and clinical skills as well as clinical decision-making and communication abilities expected of an Indian medical graduate.

3. The exam must be taken in person or live, and it must be administered by the relevant state health universities or institutions in accordance with the norms and directives given by the Commission. The Commission will choose the university or institution that is permitted to conduct NExT Step 2 for the relevant colleges where there are no state health universities.

4. The Regular NExT Step 2 Exam shall be held twice a year.

5. A NExT Step 2 Supplementary Examination is only open to candidates who have failed in one or more (up to three) of the seven subjects and are required to repeat specific subjects. It will be held twice a year. If a candidate fails in more than three subjects, then they will have to appear in supplementary exams of all the seven subjects.

7. As long as the candidate has completed both the NExT Step 1 and NExT Step 2 Examinations within ten years of enrolling in the MBBS programme, there is no restriction on the number of attempts to participate in NExT Step 2.

NExT Scores

1. Nature of Scoring

1. The marks in NExT Step 1 must be calculated as a whole number, which will serve as the Raw Scores with the proper decimals. Also, equivalent Percentages (marks out of a maximum of 100) with the proper decimals may then be calculated.
2. The outcomes of the NExT 2 exams will only be reported as Pass/Fail depending on the acquisition of the relevant competence that is being evaluated.

2. Minimum scores for passing

1. The minimum score to pass shall be 50% of the total or half of the maximum possible Raw for NExT Step 1.
2. To pass the NExT Step 1 exam, you must receive a minimum of 50% (50 out of 100) in each of the six papers or half of the maximum possible Raw Scores.
3. The requirements for passing NExT Step 2 include a successful demonstration of having acquired the competencies that are evaluated, with a pass/fail result being given.

3. Calculation of NExT Step 1 scores for determining merit for the purpose of admission to Postgraduate courses in broad specialties

1. The sum of the raw scores earned in each paper or topic in a single NExT 1 exam will be used to calculate the Total Marks for determining the merit, particularly for admission to broad specialization Postgraduate Courses.
2. The candidate must follow the generation of a rank application process as stipulated by the Commission from time to time in order to determine rank for admission into Postgraduate courses in broad specializations in a given academic year. Only individuals who have submitted an application for rank generation will be eligible for admission for that cycle of the academic year.
3. The NExT Step results will be valid for five years in order to determine merit, notably for admission to broad-specialty postgraduate courses. If a candidate has appeared in the NExT exam cycle then the score of the latest given NExT step 1 exam will be considered.
4. Tie-breaker rule for rank generation:

• • Normalized sum of raw scores obtained in each paper in NExT step 1 although the method of normalization will be notified later.
  • Candidate with the lower attempts in NExT step 1 will be placed higher in the merit list.
  • Candidates will be given higher rank based on the higher marks in the following order of preference:

1. 1. 1. Medicine and allied disciplines
      2. Surgery and allied disciplines
      3. Obstetrics and Gynecology
      4. Pediatrics
      5. Otorhinolaryngology
      6. Ophthalmology

4. Utility of NExT Scores

1. An MBBS student from a college recognized by the Commission shall be eligible for compulsory internship only if they pass in each of the six theory papers of NExT Part 1 and also pass in III MBBS/Final MBBS (Part 2) Practical/Clinical Examination.
2. A medical student who has completed their undergraduate studies abroad at an institution recognized by the Commission and who has met the necessary requirements outlined in the Commission’s Foreign Medical Graduate Regulations is eligible to participate in the mandatory rotating internship programme only if they pass in all six NExT Step 1 Theory Papers.
3. A medical graduate who received their training in India or outside of India will be entitled to register in the Indian Medical Register and State Medical Register and obtain a license to practice modern medicine in India, only if, they have completed the internship for the appropriate length of time and have successfully passed the NExT Step 2 (Practical / Clinical) Examination. You must fulfill all the requirements as per the Registration of Medical Practitioners and Licence to practice Medicine Regulations, of NMC. Also, all the other requirements are considered appropriate by the Commission, Concerned University/Institution and duly applicable at that time.
4. For admission to PG medical courses in broad specialty subjects, a candidate must meet the following criteria:
   • Candidates must meet the conditions outlined for NExT Part 1 and 2, making them eligible for a license to practice modern medicine in India.
   • Must engage in common counselling by a designated authority granted by the Central Government or Commission.
5. The NExT Step I Scores may be used by the Government of India, the State Governments, any organization of the Government of India, the State Governments, or any autonomous or private body/institution for the purpose of employment, provided that the necessary authorization has been sought and authorized by the National Medical Commission or other appropriate authorities as determined to be appropriate.

Click Here to Read NMC NExT Exam Update – Chapter 1 (Preliminary)

Click Here to Read NMC NExT Exam Update – Chapter 3 (General Information)

The NExT Exam latest news includes Chapter 1 (Preliminary) and Chapter 2 (Broad Outline) and Chapter 3 (General Information).

The core objective of the NExT exam is to provide consistency in summative evaluations conducted across the nation in relation to the minimal requirements for a medical graduate’s education and training.

The National Exit Test (NExT), shall serve as a licentiate examination for validating a medical graduate’s eligibility to register for practice the contemporary system of medicine in India.

NExT will also act as an entrance exam for admission to PG medical education in broad medical specialties by determining the eligibility and ranking of the MBBS students.

 

The National Exit Exam shall be applicable to:

1. All undergraduate medical students seeking the MBBS degree at all medical colleges that have been accredited by the National Medical Commission along with Institutes of National Importance (INIs) are subject to the National Exit Test (NExT).
2. All foreign medical graduates who have been granted approval by the NMC for the purposes of obtaining a license to practice medicine as a registered medical practitioner in India and for enrollment in the State Register or the National Register in such a manner as may be specified by regulations.
3. Anyone with a medical degree aiming to pursue an academic course, an observership, or any other purpose that may be specified and allowed by the NMC by appropriate notification or rules from time to time.
4. Anyone with the granted medical license practicing in India wishes to pursue PG degree can take the NExT exam.

 

According to the draft released, the NExT comprises two separate examinations, referred to as “Steps”.

Step 1: Theoretical Examination
Step 2: Practical/Clinical and Viva Voce Examination

 

The Commission shall from time to time determine, by appropriate regulations and/or notification, the applicable method of employing the NExT results for admission to Postgraduate Courses in wide medical specialties by means of common counselling by the designated authority.

There is no confirmation yet on the academic session to which the NExT exam will be applicable but when it will come into force, all other corresponding and equivalent examinations shall be phased/ceased out.

It is still to be decided by the Commission Central Government, State Government, that the existing examinations, however, shall continue for as long as may be necessary or the analogous existing exams will be replaced by the NExT. The Commission will decide when it is necessary and will notify the use of scores and normalization of various examinations and the NExT, when applicable concurrently, for such purposes as may be appropriate.

Chapters 2 and 3 of the update include the complete structure of the NExT Examination, objectives, exam pattern, eligibility, distribution of subjects, nature of scoring, timetables, and more.

Click Here to Read NMC NExT Exam Update – Chapter 2 (Broad Outline)

Click Here to Read NMC NExT Exam Update – Chapter 3 (General Information)

After completing 12^th standard, students who want to pursue their career in medicine must take the NEET-UG entrance examination. Around 15 lakh aspirants appeared for the exam last year which itself is a huge number for a total of about 78,000 thousand medical seats in India. Hence, it is highly competitive to get admission into the MBBS programme. As the NEET-UG exam is approaching on May 7 this year, students should polish their skills and stick to their preparation strategy. Strictly following the preparation tips and putting consistent efforts will keep you ahead of the competition.

Here’s are some last-minute reliable preparation tips for the NEET-UG Exam.

Practice mock paper with your timers on: This will help you in analyzing the exam pattern, evaluating your level of understanding of the topic, and of course, developing time management skills.

Solve previous year question papers: Solve previous year papers of at least last 10 years. This will give you an idea about the exam pattern, type of questions asked from the chapter and topic. It will boost your confidence.

Don’t study from multiple resources at the last moment: Before exams, always prefer to study from NCERT books and notes. This will help you with quick revision and covering the entire syllabus with focusing more on the important topics for NEET-UG exam.

Refrain from studying new chapters and concepts: The NEET-UG 2023 syllabus is vast, and it is not possible to grasp everything in one go. In case you have missed any difficult concept, refrain from starting anything in the last days because studying any topic from the beginning and then making notes is time taking which in turn increases pressure and workload. Instead, it is advised to practice the topics you have already learned and have a tight grasp over it.

Put consistent efforts: As the syllabus is quite extensive and the level of complexity is high, you must put in consistent effort to practice and revise every topic properly.

Practice, Practice and Practice: Practice as much as questions you can. Practise formulae, flowcharts, schematic diagrams, tables, graphs, remember the conversions and values of the variables, and other crucial topics. It plays a critical role in scoring well in the exams.  Write and learn all the shortcut approaches which are easy to memorize the concept and recall during exam.

Prioritize Chapters: Prioritize the maximum weightage and important topics during the last period of your preparation.

Important Units of Physics for NEET-UG:

• Mechanics
• Heat and Thermodynamics
• Waves
• Magnetism
• Modern Physics
• Electricity
• Optics

Important Units of Chemistry for NEET-UG:

• Atomic structure
• Equilibrium
• Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure
• Electrochemistry
• Chemical Kinetics
• Coordination Compounds
• Aldehydes, Ketones, and Carboxylic Acids
• s, p, d, and f -block Elements
• Hydrocarbons

Important Units of Biology for NEET-UG: 

• Evolution
• Biotechnology
• Structural organisation in animals
• Animal kingdom
• Biomolecules
• Plant physiology
• Cell & Cell Cycle
• Genetics
• Ecology
• Diversity of Living Organisms
• Human Physiology
• Human Health and Diseases
• Human Reproduction

Maintain your physical and mental health and take proper sleep: Maintaining good health is equally important as effective preparation. It is advised to take some time to meditate and exercise and keep yourself healthy. Remain calm and don’t overexert yourself. Negligence in terms of health will keep all your efforts at stake.

Be confident: Don’t panic in the last days of your preparation. Revise thoroughly what you have prepared so far and avoid comparing yourself with your fellows. Have faith in yourself and stick to your preparation, just avoid procrastination. Identify your pain areas, clear your doubts and practice more.

Prepare in advance: Read all the instructions provided on the admit card and strictly adhere to it. Avoid carrying the barred items and get dressed as per the NEET-UG exam dress code. Arrange all your required documents and valid ID proof for the exam day prior.

Maintain a healthy lifestyle: Keep in mind that if you fall sick all your efforts will go in vain. Hence, take proper sleep, eat healthy food, and do exercises to keep yourself healthy.

Do’s and Don’ts on the Exam Day

• Check your exam centre location prior to your exam or visit once to avoid being late on your exam day.
• Go through the instructions regarding exam day, dress code, barred items, required documents and photographs and more.
• Be very careful while bubbling in the OMR answer sheet.
• Start your exam with the subject you are more confident in and manage your time effectively.
• Don’t waste your time in thinking over a question much and do the next.
• Don’t rely on guesswork. There is a negative marking in the NEET-UG exam and hence, guesswork can reduce your overall score.
• Strictily adhere to the dresscode guidelines issues by NEET authority.
• Concentrate on your last-minute revision.
• Don’t let yourself feel dehydrated.
• Remain focused and attentive.
• Read all the instructions carefully before starting the exam to avoid any mistake.
• Double check your OMR sheet before submitting.
• Do not carry any barred/prohibited items.
• Stay positive and determined.

List of Barred Items

• Any type of study material, and stationery items such as, papers, pens, writing pads, geometry boxes, logbook, calculator, etc.
• Any communication devices such as mobile phones, Bluetooth, earphones, microphones, health band, smart watches, etc.
• Accessories like watch, wallet, bracelets, googles, cap, etc.
• Any ornaments and metallic items
• Any food item and beverage
• Any kind of cheating material

Things to carry at the Examination Day

• You must carry the following things to the Exam Centre:
  • NEET-UG admit card with the passport size photograph affixed on it
  • One passport size photograph to be affixed on the attendance sheet
  • Valid Identity proof and PwBD certificate, if required
  • Proforma downloaded with the admit card and one post card size photograph (4” * 6”) with white background must be affixed on the proforma and hand over to the invigilator at the exam centre.

Dress Code

You must follow the instructions regarding the dress code. If you don’t follow dress code, it will create chaos during frisking and you will be not allowed to sit in the exam. You must keep the following things in mind:

• Long sleeves clothes are not allowed to wear.
• Clothes with large buttons are not allowed.
• Accessories like studs, earrings, rings, etc. are not allowed.
• If any candidate is coming in the cultural customary dress for examination at any exam centre, you must report at least an hour before the reporting time.
• Shoes are not permitted. Slippers, sandals, and low heel footwear are allowed.

Your consistent efforts and determination will pay off, just have faith in yourself.

Click here to know more about NEET-UG Entrance Examination.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs):

Q1. What is the exam date of NEET UG 2023?

Ans. The NEET-UG entrance exam will be held on 7^th May, 2023.

Q2. What is the pass mark for NEET?

Ans. The cut off marks for NEET-UG as per 2022 is 117 out of 720. But these cut-off marks are not to get admission to variety of medical undergraduate courses.

Q3. Which is the conducting body for NEET-UG?

Ans. The NEET-UG entrance examination is conducted by National Testing Agency (NTA).

Q4. Which dresses are not allowed for NEET?

Ans. You must keep the following things in mind:

• Long sleeves clothes are not allowed to wear.
• Clothes with large buttons are not allowed.
• Accessories like studs, earrings, rings, etc. are not allowed.
• If any candidate is coming in the cultural customary dress for examination at any exam centre, you must report at least an hour before the reporting time.
• Shoes are not permitted. Slippers, sandals, and low heel footwear are allowed.

The subjects included in the fourth year of MBBS curriculum are General Medicine, Dermatology, Psychiatry, General Surgery, Anaesthesiology, Orthopaedics, Obstetrics & Gynecology and Pediatrics.

A medical student must always refer to the latest editions of the book to get the updated information revised according to the CBME curriculum.

Here’s a list of recommended books for MBBS 4^th Year students:

Best Books for General Medicine

Book	Author	Desciption
An Insider’s Guide to Clinical Medicine	Archith Boloor & Anudeep Padakanti	This is one of the best books of Medicine for the undergraduate students. The Key Features of the book are: ✓  X-rays, Spotters, Common Medicines, and Instruments are included that assists in making an early diagnosis. ✓  Contains thorough material organised in little boxes and figures, making it a convenient resource for revision. ✓  Discusses model cases and conventional presentations. ✓  Only book including chapters on mental disorders, geriatric evaluation, and rheumatology. ✓  Case sheet and diagnostic formats are included for cases in each system. ✓  With clear conceptual explanations and lots of visual memory aids, it is simple to read.
Exam Preparatory Manual for Undergraduates: Medicine	Archith Boloor & Ramadas Nayak	The book caters all the MBBS undergraduates and PG aspirants. The information that has been absorbed over so many years is the core of this book. The key features of the book are: ✓  Includes all the reading material a medical student at the undergraduate level would need. ✓  Simple to read, filled with visual memory and intellectual explanations. ✓  It is a ready reckoner since it contains complete information in little boxes and figures. ✓  High-yield points for the MRCP, NEET, and other competitive examinations have been included.
Self-Assessment & Review Medicine (Part A & B)	Mudit Khanna	For the PG entrance exam preparation, this book is a must. The key features of the book are: ✓  ‘Essential Revision Notes’ are provided before each chapter to revise all relevant and crucial topics in a more systematic manner. ✓  The book methodically approaches “medicine” by segmenting its information into clinical chapters and then into logical ideas and themes. ✓  Harrison’s and CMDT’s most recent editions have been completely updated and reviewed in the book. ✓  Presents the most crucial information in a way that is “simple to recall,” including flow diagrams and tabulation. ✓  Includes a big database of questions from prior entrance exams. ✓  Dedicated section for IBQs.
Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine (Volume I & Volume II)	J. Larry Jameson, Anthony S. Fauci, Dennis L. Kasper, Stephen L. Hauser, Dan L. Longo, & Joseph Loscalzo	The book is updated with recently authorised treatments, new practice-altering recommendations, and evidence summaries. The key features of the book are: ✓  More than a thousand clinical, pathological, and radiographic images, and schematic diagrams are included. ✓  Clinically relevant decision trees and algorithms for diagnosis and treatment are included. ✓  The latest version has been completely updated with pertinent new chapters and significant revisions throughout the field of internal medicine.

Best Books for General Surgery

 

Book	Author	Description
SRB’s Manual of Surgery	Sriram Bhat M	The book comprises three sections – General Surgery, Gastrointestinal Surgeries, and Specialties & Other Surgeries—covering every area of surgery. The key features of the book are: ✓  Each chapter begins with surgical anatomy and physiology, important pertinent investigations, and a discussion of many issues in a systematic order to give readers a flow of ideas and materials with clear language. ✓  Every chapter is aligned in accordance with the CBME curriculum. ✓  Case scenarios are supplemented with brief clinical details and related images. ✓ Throughout all chapters, novel therapy modalities, concepts, and recent advancements are introduced. ✓  The book provides complimentary online learning resources: Clinically Integrated MCQs Clinical Cases Clinical Examination Videos
Surgery Essence	Pritesh kumar Singh	The latest edition is completely revised and updated as per new CBME curriculum along with the recent advancements. The key features of the book are: ✓  The annexures contain triads, signals, investigations of options, and subjects based on the “most prevalent” types of questions to save time and aids in revision. ✓  IBQs are added for the PG entrance exam preparation. ✓  Synopsis is included before questions to help students understand the ideas and save time. ✓  New pattern based on NBE (wider coverage, concept development, one-liner approach) is included. ✓  Solved Multiple-Choice Questions (PGMEEs 2022-1985), including all recent ones (2022-2013) are added. ✓  Crucial information is highlighted in gold. ✓  Line diagrams and mnemonics are also provided.
SRB’s Clinical Methods in Surgery	Sriram Bhat M	The latest edition of the book is thoroughly according to the new CBME curriculum. The key features of the book are: ✓  Each chapter includes information on clinical assessment techniques, investigations, and a concise summary of all surgically relevant disorders. ✓  Basic general examinations are appropriately described using examples. ✓  Provides thorough instructions for clinical evaluation along with top-notch images and graphics. ✓  The book emphasises the need of thorough clinical examinations for determining the best diagnosis, course of therapy, and follow-up. ✓  Every topic includes discussion of differential diagnosis. ✓  Several chapters offer case discussions to show students how precisely clinical examination questions are phrased. ✓  Clinical pearls are included as surgical wisdom in a few chapters and are crucial while treating surgical patients. ✓  At the conclusion, there are chapters on instruments, X-rays, and specimens for a rapid glance during the practical exam in surgery. ✓  Students can scan the QR codes and access the case demonstration videos(typical surgical situations).
Bailey & Love’s Short Practice of Surgery: International Student’s Edition (set volume 1 & 2)	Norman Williams, P Ronan O’Connell & Andrew McCaskie	This book continues to be a trusted companion of medical students and surgeons and is a collection of the fundamental knowledge required for safe surgical practice. The key features of the book are: ✓  Chapter contains summary boxes with important information throughout the text. ✓  Tables, pictures, and diagrams’ uniform design and format make it easier to grasp difficult ideas. ✓  Also contains algorithms to help the reader comprehend patient care pathways. ✓  The book highlights recent significant advancements in surgical practise and those that are predicted to have a significant impact over the next ten years. ✓  Also covers paediatric surgery and organ transplantation in more detail. ✓  Readers may access supplemental material on the dedicated Bailey & Love website, which also has extended content, videos, and other tools. ✓  The pillars of safe clinical practise continue to be a thorough history taking, observation, logical reasoning, technical expertise, and postoperative patient care and is explained in the book for the students.

Best Book for Psychiatry

 

Book	Author	Description
Review of Psychiatry	Praveen Tripathi	It is one of the bestselling books of Psychiatry. The latest edition of the book is thoroughly updated with the PG entrance exam questions. The key features of the book are: ✓  The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, has been completely revised (DSM-5). ✓  This book has been developed keeping in mind the demands of students preparing for different postgraduate entrance examinations and MCI screening test. ✓  Updated completely with ICD-11. ✓  INI-CET pattern questions have been updated. ✓  Issues like the Mental Health Care Act have been updated. ✓  Updated based on the 10th editions of the Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry by Kaplan and Sadock and the 7th edition of the Short Textbook of Psychiatry. ✓  Includes IBQs.

Best Books for Pediatrics

 

Book	Author	Description
Review of Pediatrics & Neonatology	Apurv Mehra, Meenakshi Bothra Gupta & Taruna Mehra	This is a best-selling review book on paediatrics and neonatology. The key features of the book are: ✓  To help students become familiar with current trends and test patterns, the book is enhanced with more than 3200 MCQs that are organised chronologically with recent questions. ✓  Provides a brief, point-by-point summary of each chapter, including high-yield points, mnemonics, and flow diagrams. ✓  The chapters have been divided into three sections: General Paediatrics, Neonatology, and Systemic Paediatrics. ✓  Developmental stages, prominent characteristics of significant metabolic illnesses, significant genetic syndromes, a list of “Most Common” and many other crucial high-yielding topics for last-minute review are included in the annexures. ✓  Over 500 completely coloured photos are included. ✓  Under the guise of an “integrated approach,” questions with an emphasis on images have been offered.
Ghai Essential Pediatrics	Vinod K. Paul & Arvind Bagga	A top-notch paediatrics textbook is OP Ghai Pediatrics. The key features of the book are: ✓  Excellently drawn tables, graphs, and flowcharts are provided throughout the book and explanations are simple to grasp. ✓  Every chapter generally has “Suggested Reading” at the conclusion in case a student wishes to go more into the subject. ✓  The chapters on growth, adolescent health, vaccination, infection, the gastrointestinal system, malignancies, and inborn metabolic defects have all undergone considerable rewriting and revision in the latest edition. ✓  With a wide range of distinguished authors, this paediatrics textbook is the most favoured and trusted in India for both undergraduate and graduate students.
Exam preparatory Manual for Undergraduates: Pediatrics	Snehal Patel, Halak Vasavada	It is an ‘All in one’ book that covers theory, applications, PG entrance questions, and clinical practise content. The key features of the book are: ✓  Sample case presentations with frequently asked questions in viva are part of a special practical paediatrics chapter. ✓  A brand-new chapter on Covid-19 and the Covid 19 vaccinations contains myths, tragedies, and brilliant ideas is included in the latest edition of the book. ✓  For typical ward operations and competences, there are brief video snippets. ✓  Include clinical case studies at the conclusion of each chapter. ✓  Rational investigative technique, bedside realistic interpretations of frequent investigations are included. ✓  Important clinical tips in each topic—a must remember. ✓  Using flowcharts, tables, and figures, create a reader-friendly question-and-answer presentation.
UG Textbook of Pediatrics	Piyush Gupta	The NMC’s 35 Subjects and 406 key Competencies are precisely the emphasis of the revised edition of the book. The key features of the book are: ✓  Diagrams, flowcharts, and clinical pictures are abundant throughout the book to aid with comprehension and recall. They really make up the majority of the book. ✓  The text is succinct, to the point, and yet comprehensive; it is interwoven with numerous Tables and Boxes, where necessary. ✓  Case Studies that demonstrate the typical outcomes of common diseases in children are sprinkled throughout the book as an addition. ✓  Each significant topic is followed by “In A Nutshell” overview of the main ideas. So, only reading these boxes can revise the entire text. ✓  The sentences are brief, the paragraphs are concise, and the jargon has been deconstructed to make the text easier to read. ✓  The design uses colour coding to identify treatment, case studies, revision points, tables, boxes, and recommended reading.

Best Books for Orthopaedics

 

Book	Author	Description
Essential Orthopedics: Principles & Practice (2 Volumes)	Manish Kumar Varshney	It is one of the best books on orthopaedics for MBBS students. The key features of the book are: ✓  Updated and thoroughly edited to reflect the latest developments in the treatment of elective orthopaedic disorders. ✓  An orthopaedic trauma primer with a list of frequently occurring fractures has been included to the annexures. ✓  The foundational sciences of orthopaedics have been thoroughly covered. ✓  To establish linkage, sections are separated into bodily areas. ✓  The growth of Malunions, Musculoskeletal Imaging, Preoperative Planning, Nanotechnology, Orthopedics in the Digital Renaissance, and Neglected Trauma to Bones and Joints (Annexure 4) are a few of the new chapters that have been introduced. ✓  Addition of a large number of pertinent images and figures, as well as tabulation. ✓  Enhanced with more than 2200 insightful graphics.
Fundamentals of Orthopedics	Mukul Mohindra & Jitesh Kumar Jain	The latest edition of the book is an up-to-date, concise, and comprehensive bundle to address theory and practical exams as well as the current pattern of exams. The key features of the book are: ✓  Simplifies and thoroughly covers orthopaedic problems that are on the edge, including the spine, polytrauma, metabolic bone disorders, arthritis, skeletal dysplasia, brachial plexus palsy, thoracic outlet syndrome, and soft tissue sarcomas. ✓  New chapter on sports injuries and their recovery is introduced. ✓  Offers more than 1000 well labelled photos with similes that show all clinical and radiological symptoms in orthopaedics as well as commonly used tools and implants. ✓  Discusses High-Yield Points at the conclusion of each topic that are directed towards the prevalent style of multiple-choice questions (MCQs) ✓  Includes questions from previous year’s MCQs with textual references for the answers.
Orthopedics Quick Review (OPQR)	Apurv Mehra	OPQR has emerged as the go-to option for PG aspirants and is the best-selling book for orthopaedics globally. The key features of the book are: ✓  Succinct is exam-oriented material. ✓  Flowcharts that are self-explanatory. ✓  Images and diagrams that complement the text can help pupils comprehend fundamental ideas more clearly. ✓  Simple to remember mnemonics. ✓  After each chapter are possible Retro Analysis questions. ✓  “Summary of Ortho” is provided for quick review. ✓  Every student aiming for the Top Ranks in the PGMEE must read OPQR because Ortho is a subject that determines rank. ✓  In each topic, important topics are underlined. ✓  Genuine High Yield Questions with a fast revision designation are provided.
Chapman’s Comprehensive Orthopaedic Surgery (5 Vols.)	Michael W Chapman & Michelle A James	The latest edition of Chapman’s Comprehensive Orthopaedic Surgery is practically a brand-new book. The key features of the book are: ✓  Offers in-depth coverage of the diagnosis, medical, surgical, and rehabilitative aspects of musculoskeletal problems. ✓  The 285 chapters and 12 speciality divisions are included. ✓  Detailed coverage with more than 13,000 additional tables, flowcharts, and 3D images in full colour are provided. ✓  Surgery methods are bulleted. ✓  Boxes on Pitfalls, Complications, and Tips & Tricks are provided. ✓  ‘Information at a glance’ is crucial thanks to the authors’ point of view. ✓  The digital edition comes with improved functionality and a video library. Videos are included in Chapters 45, 48, 138, 156, 158, 193, 259, 263, and 281.
Essential Orthopaedics	Maheshwari & Mhaskar	After 25 years of publication, this book is still a favourite among students studying medicine and physiotherapy. The key features of the book are: ✓  It becomes “all-in-one” book for UG students and residents when an annexure on “Clinical Methods” is included. ✓  Free online resources include clinical cases, multiple-choice questions, and practise tests. ✓  There are Competency/Learning Goals listed at the start of each chapter. ✓  A section titled “Additional Information: From the Point of View of Entrance Exams” is provided at the end of each chapter. ✓  Reviewing the definitions of various orthopaedic terminologies is made easier by the annexed “Orthopaedic Terminology” section. ✓  Each chapter ends with a question titled “What have we learned?” for a fast recap. ✓  For improved readability and comprehension, some graphics and X-rays have been changed.
Manipal Manual of Orthopaedics	Vivek Pandey	The book is highly beneficial for MBBS students and may also be beneficial for postgraduates to review orthopaedics at the fundamental level. The key features of the book are: ✓  Content is readable, accurate, and pertinent. ✓  For ease of comprehension, the whole material has been split into two sections: trauma and cold orthopaedics. ✓  Includes pertinent graphs, flowcharts, schematics, and radiographs. ✓  For ease of comprehension and writing in exams, the majority of conditions provide the therapy as an algorithm with a written explanation. ✓  Has a tonne of revision boxes with Key Information, Notes, and Points-to-Remember highlighted. ✓  A brief description of the anatomy precedes each condition, which is then followed by pathology, clinical signs, a diagnosis, tests, and treatments.

Best Books for Obstetrics & Gynecology

 

Book	Author	Description
DC Dutta’s Textbook of Obstetrics (Including Perinatology & Contraception)	Hiralal Konar	The book is developed in accordance with the Competency-based Medical Education Curriculum (NMC). The book is suitable for the undergraduates, postgraduates and nursing students. The key features of the book are: ✓  Content is written in clear, plain language. ✓  Every chapter has the same, uniform information. ✓  790 line drawings, pictures, photographs, boxes, tables, flowcharts, MR images, ultrasonograms, and skiagrams are included to enhance the text. ✓  Each chapter has undergone a comprehensive update and reorganisation to reflect modern obstetric treatment of the highest calibre. ✓  A lot of revisions and updates have been made to Ch. 13 Normal Labor, Ch. 39 Intrapartum Fetal Monitoring, Ch. 31, 32, and 33 on Perinatal Care, and Ch. 34 Analgesia and Anesthesia in Obstetrics. ✓  For ease of navigation, a list of the most used acronyms has been supplied. ✓  The supplemental reading material for advanced learning can be accessed with the QR codes. This strategy aims to support and get graduate students ready for their numerous exams.
DC Dutta’s Textbook of Gynecology	Hiralal Konar	The book’s user-friendly layout and thoroughness make it a great resource. The key features of the book are: ✓  This book’s presentation, which includes high-quality graphics and design, voluminous illustrations (366), excellent pictures (330), and imaging studies, is what makes it stand out. ✓  There are several tables, boxes, flowcharts, and algorithms included for repeatability and simplicity of study. ✓  The essential points are at the end of each chapter to offer an outline overview of the whole chapter. This is helpful for quick and simple review. ✓  Viva questions along with explanations and answers are given for the clinical and viva voce portions of the exam.
Self-Assessment & Review Gynecology	Sakshi Arora Hans	The gold standard book for MBBS students. The key features of the book are: ✓  Completely edited and updated from Novak’s Gynecology, 15th edition, and William’s Gynecology, 3rd edition. ✓  Updates are based on the most recent revisions and recommendations. ✓  Contains a clear, full-color depiction of the text. ✓  Contains over 158 coloured pictures, USG, HSG photos, equipment, and specimens. ✓  Includes annexure tables for last minute revision. ✓  Includes all most recent tumours staging and treatment (Cervix, Vulva as per FIGO guidelines). ✓  Must-read material for taking a gynaecology test, including undergraduates, international medical graduates, interns, and post-interns.
Self-Assessment & Review Obstetrics	Sakshi Arora Hans	The latest edition of the book is extensively edited and rewritten. The key features of the book are: ✓  Content is thoroughly revised according to Williams Obstetrics 25/e. ✓  With the most recent question trends in mind, new pattern questions have been introduced to each chapter. ✓  Additional questions with images. ✓  Added a manual for CTG. ✓  Includes annexures for last-minute changes. ✓  Includes details of significant Instruments, Dopplers, and Ultrasounds. ✓  Topic of HIV is included.
Bedside Clinics in Gynecology	Arup Kumar Majhi	The book is intended mostly for MBBS students, but would be quite helpful for postgraduates as well. The key features of the book are: ✓  Chapters have been updated and edited as per the CBME curriculum. ✓  Topics covered in this book include history-taking and examinations, clinical cases, instruments, operations, specimens, and images. ✓  Includes all the topics that will be covered in the oral and practical exams. ✓  Enriched with 330 graphics and over 845 unique pictures.
Ward Rounds in Obstetrics & Gynecology	K Srinivas & Sunanda R Kulkarni	This book is quite beneficial for the UG students and residents. The key features of the book: ✓  Incorporates case-based discussions and a problem-based learning strategy. ✓  Each chapter begins with the case history, examination, and investigations before addressing the topic followed by pertinent questions and pertinent responses. ✓  The book offers skill-transfer exercise in the form of in-depth case analyses, which are extremely helpful for both undergraduate and graduate students. ✓  This book’s discussion of intensive care unit (ICU) rounds, postoperative ward rounds, the examination of a victim of sexual assault, cardiac disease in pregnancy discussed by both the obstetrician and the cardiologist, some frequently encountered problems like vulval hematoma and fever in pregnancy, the use of bedside ultrasound in obstetrics, the discussion of invasive foetal procedures, etc. are some other unique aspects of the book.

Best Books of Anaesthesiology

 

Book	Author	Description
Anaesthesia Essence	Pritesh Singh & Usica Chandan	It is a must buy book for PG entrance examinations. The key features of the book are: ✓  The latest edition of the book is thoroughly revised and updated including exam pattern questions, important annexures and image-based questions. ✓  The content is updated from Miller 8th/e, Morgan 5th/e, Lee 13th/e, Wiley 7th/e, Barash 7th/e, Stoelting 6th/e, Dorsch 5th/e. ✓  The book also provides the free online exam support.
Short Textbook of Anaesthesia	Ajay Yadav	Most suited book for those pursuing undergraduate and graduate degree. The key features of the book are: ✓  Best for last-minute revision. ✓  Concentrates on the subjects that appear most frequently in pre-PG exams. ✓  A handy reference for anaesthetists in practice. ✓  Nine parts separate the text to make reading more comfortable. ✓  Key points are highlighted in italics. ✓  Each chapter’s conclusion includes a list of key points. ✓  Tabular overview of the themes has been provided, wherever necessary. ✓  Recent advancement and innovations in medications, tools, and methods are also included in the content. ✓  The American Heart Association’s (AHA) 2015 update serves as the foundation for CPR recommendations.

Best Book for Radiology

 

Book	Author	Description
Review of Radiology	Rajat Jain & Virendra Jain	It is the one of the bestseller books on the topic. The key features of the book are: ✓  Based on information and ideas from the CT and MRI (Haaga), CME Series, Som and Curtin 5th/e, Dahnert 8th/e, Grainger 6th/e, Sutton, Scott, and Rumack 4th/e textbooks. ✓  Updated image-based questions. ✓  New INI-CET pattern questions are included. ✓  Contains questions from the JIPMER, WBPGMEE (2018), All India (1991–2012), AIIMS (Nov 2021–1991–2012), DNB (2012–1991–2018), and Other State Examinations (2016-1991). ✓  The content included in General Radiology, Systemic Radiology, Radiotherapy and Nuclear Scans, Few Thumb Rules in Radiology, Image-based Questions is not only intended to prepare students for exams but also for their future clinical training and day-to-day hospital employment.

Best Book for Dermatology & Venereology

 

Book	Author	Description
Review of Dermatology	Saurabh Jindal	It is best-selling book on Dermatology for MBBS students. The key features of the book are: ✓  Full-color images that are incorporated with the chapter’s content. ✓  Mnemonics, high-yield charts, and memory aids are included. ✓  Conceptual diagrams have been hand-simplified in each chapter. ✓ For last-minute revision, there is a short review section at the end of each chapter. ✓ Based on Fitzpatrick 8/e, Rook’s 9/e, Bolognia 3/e, Habif 5/e, Andrews 11/e, McKee 4/e, King Holmes 4/e, Lever 10/e, and IAL 2/e of the newest standard textbooks. ✓ 807 additional full-color images and 200 additional full-color graphics are included.

To get conceptual clarity on MBBS courses online, click here

 

With the time and technology, medical field has undergone major changes in terms of diagnostic measures, operative and non-operative approach leading to advanced medical techniques like precision medicine, gene editing, artificial intelligence, stem cell therapy, artificial disc replacement, robotic assisted surgery, minimally invasive spine surgery and lot more. Advancement has led to the path of much diversified and specialized medical fields.

Spine surgery is a specialised field that involves the diagnosis, treatment and surgical management of conditions that affect the spine and surrounding structures. Spine surgeons play a crucial role in providing both surgical and non-surgical treatments to help patient achieve better spine health and overall quality of life. There are various sub-specialties within the spine surgery, including Orthopaedic spine surgery, Neuro spine surgery, Pediatric spine surgery, Spinal Oncology, Spine deformity surgery, and minimally invasive spine surgery.

Spine surgery is a complex medical procedure which requires specialised knowledge and expertise. While both orthopaedic surgeons and neurosurgeons can perform the spine surgery, there are differences in their training, experience and approach to the surgery depending on the different spine deformity or injury. The experience and expertise of the surgeon are important factors to consider while choosing a surgeon for spine surgery. Both types of surgeons have a stake in the spine since it serves as the junction between the neurological system and the musculoskeletal.

It is crucial to understand that sophisticated spine surgery is performed by both neurosurgeons and orthopaedic surgeons. These specialisations are combined in the newly developing specialty of “spinal surgery”.

Neurosurgeons for Spine Surgery:

Neuro spine surgeons are medical doctors who specialise in the diagnosis, treatment and surgical management of conditions that affect the nervous system, including the spine, spinal cord and peripheral nerves. They are trained to diagnose and treat conditions such as brain tumors, head injuries, spinal cord compression, herniated discs spinal stenosis and traumatic spinal injuries. Neuro surgeons who specialize in the spine surgery undergo additional training and subspecialty course in the domain that focusses on the spine conditions.

The neuro spine surgeons also treat conditions like stroke, epilepsy, Parkinson’s disease and spinal cord injuries. During the training period, they gain expertise in the latest surgical techniques including the microsurgery and minimally invasive surgery as well as non-surgical treatments.

Neuro spine surgeons work closely with other specialists, including neurologists, pain management physicians, oncologists and physical therapists to provide the comprehensive approach to patient care.

Orthopaedic Surgeons for Spine Surgery:

Orthopaedic spine surgeon is a medical doctor who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of conditions affecting the spine, including vertebrae, discs, spinal cord and surrounding ligaments and muscles.

They perform variety of spine surgeries such as spinal fusion, laminectomy, and discectomy. Orthopaedic surgeons who specialise in the spine surgery focusses on the structural issues of the spine, such as alignment and stability, and may use instrumentation such as rods, screw and cages to correct the issue. They are trained in both surgical and non-surgical treatment of conditions such as herniated disc, degenerative disc diseases, scoliosis, spinal stenosis, spinal deformities to alleviate pain and restore function. They opt for the minimally invasive techniques for spine surgery, which lead to less pain and quicker recovery.

Orthopaedic Surgeon and Neurosurgeon for Spine Surgery

The main difference between the orthopaedic spine surgeon and neuro spine surgeon is their training and focus on the area of treatment.

Neurosurgeons who perform spine surgery opt a different approach than the orthopaedic surgeons. Neurosurgeons focus mainly on nerves and spinal cord and may use the techniques such as microdisectomy and laminotomy to decompress the nerves and treat conditions like spinal cord tumors and vascular malformations whereas orthosurgeons focus mainly on structural issues of the spine and related muscles and ligaments.

While both the orthopaedic spine surgeon and neuro spine surgeon perform the similar surgeries such as spinal fusion, laminectomy and discectomy, their training and approach may differ based on their specialty. Orthopaedic spine surgeons may approach spine surgeries from a biomechanical perspective while neuro spine surgeons may focus more on the neurological aspects of spine surgery.

It is prime responsibility of a spine surgeon to utilize the latest technologies and techniques that includes minimally invasive surgery to provide the most effective treatment options for their patients. In some cases, both the specialists work together as part of a multidisciplinary team to provide the best possible care.

How to become a Spine Surgeon in India?

After completing grade 12^th with the PCB stream, becoming a spine surgeon in India typically involves the following steps:

1. • Obtain a medical undergraduate degree: First, you will need to obtain a Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS) degree from a recognized medical college or university in India. This typically takes five and a half years to complete including one-year internship at a hospital or medical institution recognized by the Medical Council of India (MCI). For getting admission into medical college for MBBS degree, you will be mandatorily required to clear the NEET-UG entrance exam with the required cut off score and rank.
     Click here to read complete information regarding NEET-UG entrance examination.

 

1. • Obtain a master’s degree: To become a spine surgeon, you have options to choose your PG specialty. You will need to clear the National Eligibility cum Entrance Test-postgraduate (NEET-PG) or INI-CET entrance examination for admission to a MD/MS program in India. You can pursue a 3-year Master of Surgery (MS) degree in Orthopaedics or General Surgery.
     Click here to enroll in the MBBS courses online for NEET-PG preparation.
     You also have an option to pursue DNB course in Neurosurgery/Orthopaedics. For admission to DNB courses, you must clear the DNB-PDCET entrance examination with the required cut off and score.

 

1. • Complete a Residency: After completing your master’s programme, you will need to complete a residency program in area of your PG expertise. This will provide you with the necessary clinical experience and training in the surgery specialty.

 

1. • Obtain a super specialisation degree: After completing MS/DNB degree, you may need to further pursue the super specialisation in Neurosurgery (M.Ch) for pursuing a career as a spine surgeon. You have to successfully clear the NEET-SS entrance examination for admission to M.Ch courses.

 

• • Fellowship in Spine Surgery: After completing the residency of your respective medical course, you need to pursue a fellowship program in spine surgery to specialize in this field. Students who have earned a DNB, MD, MS, M.Ch, or DM in the relevant speciality are eligible for entry to the NBEMS fellowship programme. Anyone with a medical degree in DNB/MS Orthopaedics or DNB/M.Ch Neurosurgery who have passed the FET (Fellowship Entrance Exam) and meets the requirements for admission to fellowship programmes at the various NBE-accredited medical colleges, institutions, and hospitals in India is eligible to participate in the centralised counselling for the allocation of FNB Spine Surgery seats solely on the basis of merit and preference. There are many institutes in India which offer fellowship program in spine surgery.
    Click here to learn latest surgical techniques with the case-based spine surgery videos by the eminent surgeons.

 

• • Obtain your fellowship and License: Student who pass the Fellowship Exit Examination are recognised as Fellow of the National Board (FNB) or Fellow of the National Board – Post Doctoral (FNB-PD) at the NBEMS annual convocation.

Once you have received your certification and completed your education and training, you will need to obtain a license to practice as a spine surgeon in India. You will need to register with the Medical Council of India (MCI) or the respective state medical council in order to practice medicine in India.

As a spine surgeon, it is important to keep your knowledge and skills up to date by regularly attending conferences, seminars, and workshops on spine surgery. This will help you stay updated with the latest techniques and advancements in the field and latest surgical and non-surgical approaches.

It is highly important for the medical students to carefully choose their medical specialty and subspecialty. Medical professional pursuing the course or fellowship in neurosurgery or orthopaedics and is interested in the spine surgery specialty can enroll in online spine surgery courses 2023. These courses provide detailed real life case demonstrations of spine surgery.

Orthopaedic surgeons and neurosurgeons may learn about the most recent methods and techniques in the field of spine surgery from the Ganga Videos on Spine Surgery course, a collection of 50 spine surgery videos. It includes minimally invasive and neurosurgical techniques, as well as treatments for spinal deformities, all carried out by renowned and skilled surgeons. The key feature of the course includes 10 hours of video lectures, 31 lecture notes, over 60 benchmark trials, and 150 self-assessment questions.

This spine surgery online courses include video lectures that demonstrate operations together with the clinical information about the patient, pertinent images, a brief explanation of the process, the actual surgical procedure, potential problems, post-operative treatment, and follow-up.

Brief summaries of the important topics are discussed in the lectures to help the candidates. Multiple-choice questions that are given at the conclusion of each lecture allow applicants to gauge their level of comprehension of the subject. To improve students’ understanding, video lectures and study guides are supplemented with clinical research investigations and benchmark trials.

Overall, becoming a spine surgeon in India requires a significant amount of education and training and lot of hard work and patience, but it can be a rewarding career for those who are dedicated to help patients with spine-related conditions.

The second year of MBBS is quite important as it includes all the foundational subjects. Microbiology, Pharmacology, and Pathology subjects are included in the second year of the MBBS curriculum. They serve as a strong foundation in the MBBS journey and hence, conceptual clarity over these subjects is a must for every medical student. Apart from the three subjects, the second-year curriculum includes AETCOM (Attitude, Ethics, Communication Module), Sports and extracurricular activities, postings, and a pandemic module. All the students must refer to the latest edition of the books during the study so that they remain updated with the latest advancements in the subject and newly added chapters and modules according to the new CBME pattern.

There are a variety of books available in the market but choosing the right one is crucial. One must choose a standard book that is in lucid manner and includes highly illustrative images, flowcharts, tables, must-know topics, questions with explanations, and most of all, it must be according to the new CBME pattern.

Here’s a list of recommended books for MBBS 2^nd year students:

Best Books on Microbiology for MBBS Students:

Subject: Microbiology	Authors	Description
Essentials of Medical Microbiology	Apurba Sastry & Sandhya Bhat	Apurba Sastry’s Essentials of Medical Microbiology book is highly recommended to MBBS students for conceptual clarity and to score high in MBBS prof exams as well as competitive examinations. The book has two parts: Part A includes General Microbiology, Immunology, and Hospital Infection Control (Infectious Diseases), and Part B includes Systemic Microbiology. The key features of the book are: ✔ This is the only textbook in “Clinical Microbiology” that is centered on infectious syndromes, updated according to the CBME curriculum. ✔ It has simple language and bulleted writing that is easy to read. ✔ Summary boxes for laboratory diagnosis and therapy are provided separately for easy viewing. ✔ After each chapter, there are essay questions with clinical case studies and MCQs. ✔ The book additionally has a Covid-19 chapter and the AETCOM module. ✔ References are taken from the CDC and WHO websites, the Harrison 20th edition, the Mandell 9th edition, the Bailey & Scott’s 14th edition, as well as many health care programmes and recommendations including the ICMR, NCDC, RNTCP, NACO, NVBDCP, IAP Immunization, and GPEI. ✔ Only textbook in microbiology that is designed according to the PG entrance exams.
Review of Microbiology and Immunology	Apurba Sastry & Sandhya Bhat	The Key features of the book are: ✔ The latest edition of the book includes the most recent laboratory diagnosis, therapy, and epidemiology in every chapter. ✔ The book includes updates on bacterial medication resistance and information on the Zika virus, Ebola virus, polio eradication, Dengue vaccine, vaccine-derived polio viruses (vdpvs), and MERS-CoV. ✔ Newer molecular techniques (lamp, real-time PCR, biofire film array, etc.) as well as CSSD, Malditof, Vitek, and Bact/Alert Virtuo are featured. ✔ The epidemiology of meningococcal meningitis, pneumococcal vaccinations, DPT vaccine, TB (genexpert, mgit, truenat, drug susceptibility testing methodologies, most recent RNTCP recommendations), melioidosis, scrub typhus, and the yaws eradication campaign have all undergone significant updates. ✔ Updated laboratory findings for hbv and HCF diagnosis, therapy, and PEP. ✔ Updates on the poliomyelitis vaccine schedule, epidemiology, and end game strategy are also covered. ✔ Completely updated with the most recent references from Harrison (19th and 20th editions), Park (24th edition), Jawetz (27th edition), Apurba Sastry’s Essentials of Medical Microbiology (2nd edition), and Ananthanarayan (10th edition). ✔ Separate annexures section with pertinent, quick-fire subjects for exams are provided. ✔ Sections including immunology, parasitology, and mycology are given more attention. ✔ Contains several tables, flowcharts, and mnemonics that aid students in understanding.
Self-Assessment & Review Microbiology & Immunology	Rachna Chaurasia & Anshul Jain	The key features of the book are: ✔ “Revision at a Glance,” a single unit that highlights the most crucial aspects. ✔ Mnemonics and simple text to make learning easier. ✔ Offers a comprehensive treatment of parasitology and immunology. ✔ Citations from more recent printings of classic works, such as Harrison 20/e, Ananthanarayan 10/e, Jawetz 27/e, etc. ✔ Presents the most crucial information in a style that is simple to recall, including flow diagrams and tabulation. ✔ Detailed explanations of the most recent NEET question types.
Ananthanarayan and Paniker’s Textbook of Microbiology	R Ananthanarayan and CK Jayaram Paniker Editor: Reba Kanungo	The latest edition of the book is aimed at integrating microbiology in a system-based approach to human disease. The book includes sections on General Microbiology, Immunology, and Microbiology as Applied to Infectious Diseases. The key features of the book include: ✔ Recent developments in disease detection, molecular diagnostics, quality assurance, infection prevention and control, public health and epidemiology, and preventative techniques, including national programs, have been covered in up-to-date information. ✔ The format of the discussion is the same for all syndromes, and it includes information on the important etiological agents of each system, their disease spectra, pathogenesis, clinical features, epidemiology, and the strategy for laboratory diagnosis and treatment of each of the clinical entities described. ✔ For quick reference and memory, each chapter in this part includes one or more tabular columns summarising the causes of the numerous syndromes associated with each organ system. ✔ The organisms included in these tables are color-coded according to their respective organ system etiological relevance.

 

Best Books of Pathology for MBBS Students:

Subject: Pathology	Authors	Description
Textbook of Pathology	Harsh Mohan	Harsh Mohan’s Textbook of Pathology is one of the bestselling books on Pathology for MBBS students. The key features of the book are: ✔ There are 30 chapters in total in the updated version, divided into three sections: Systemic Pathology (Ch. 15–30), Haematopoietic and Lymphoreticular System (Ch. 11–14), and General Pathology (Ch. 1–10). There are also three appendices. ✔ “Must-know” boxes after each topic summarising essential elements for a quick review of the material in a very short amount of time. ✔ After most chapters, one or more clinical cases based on a prevalent or significant disease relevant to that chapter are provided, together with a brief history, examination results, and any subsequent research discoveries. ✔ The addition of significant review questions (both long-answer type and short notes on subjects) at the end of each chapter, to help the student prepare and visualize what to write in the test, is another new feature of the redesigned version. ✔ The updated baby book includes short-answer questions that are frequently asked during viva-voce examinations as well as newer MCQs that now include explanations. ✔ Newer and Modified Images: Prof. Ivan Damjanov graciously provided schematic, gross images, and photomicrographs for the better understanding of the students.
Essentials in Hematology and Clinical Pathology	Ramadas Nayak & Sharada Rai	The Key features of the book are: ✔ Over 135 drawings, 27 photomicrographs, 18 pictures, and 146 tables have been provided to make learning simple and quick. ✔ Essay questions, quick-answer questions, and more than 300 multiple-choice questions (MCQs) are included to help students to assess their understanding of the key ideas. ✔ Appendices 1 and 2 include Reference Values of Frequently Performed Important Laboratory Tests and Recent WHO Classification of Tumors of Hematopoietic and Lymphoid Tissues, respectively. ✔ Disorders of Red Cells, Disorders of White Cells, Disorders of Hemostasis, and Clinical Pathology make up the book’s four parts. ✔ Tables, diagrams, flowcharts, and key boxes for memorizing easily.
Exam Preparatory Manual for Undergraduates Pathology	Ramadas Nayak	The primary goal of the “Ramadas Nayak’s Exam Preparatory Manual for Undergraduates—Pathology” is to provide students with a solid understanding of pathology and, as a result, insight into the etiology, pathogenesis, pathology, and disease course. The key features of the book are: ✔ This version is a comprehensive guide for passing all pathology exams. ✔ Better quality photomicrographs or illustrations have been used in place of figures and illustrations in a few chapters. ✔ The book is divided into three sections: general pathology, hematological and clinical pathology, and systemic pathology. This book has 28 chapters. ✔ This book fills a void by offering fundamental knowledge to a student in a nutshell.
Rapid Review of Hematology	Ramadas Nayak & Sharada Rai	This hematology book, provides an undergraduate with the fundamental knowledge of the subject in a nutshell. Rapid Review of Hematology is designed for undergraduates in medical, dental, and paramedical science.  The key features of the book include: ✔ Illustrations in various colors (e.g., for etiopathogenesis, clinical presentation, complications, peripheral blood smear, and other relevant laboratory tests). ✔ Bullet-pointed text for concise reading. ✔ Text reinforced with 59 flow charts and tables, 25 photomicrographs (including X-rays and clinical photos), and 64 drawings. ✔ Text boxes to emphasize important points. ✔ Clinical scenario interpretation.
Review of Pathology and Genetics	Sparsh Gupta & Gobind Rai Garg	The latest edition of the book is based on the NBE pattern. The key features of the book include: ✔ Special points like “NEET busters” have been added for last-minute review. ✔ IBQs with Solutions ✔ Golden points are provided at the start of each chapter. ✔ Most authenticated question banks. ✔ PGMEEs 2021-1985 Solved MCQs with all current questions for 2022. ✔ A new format that is organized chapter-by-chapter to make it easier for the students to learn antegrade. ✔ In the text, new conceptual and clinically significant material has been emphasized. ✔ Many flowcharts and diagrams are used to swiftly review the concepts. ✔ References are taken from the Robbins and Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease, 10th edition. ✔ Golden nuggets and other details from the 10th edition of Robbins are provided separately. ✔ Questions from previous year exams are underlined in the text. ✔ Simple-to-understand Mnemonics. ✔ Chapter on significant stains and bodies is included.
Comprehensive Image-Based Review of Pathology	Sushant Soni	It is the only image-based book with more than 650 images with their explanation. The book covers questions based on the NEET PG exam pattern. The book has highly Illustrative images and is easy to comprehend.

 

Best Books of Pharmacology for MBBS Students:

Subject: Pharmacology	Authors	Description
Essentials of Medical Pharmacology	K.D. Tripathi	Undoubtedly, K.D. Tripathi’s Essentials of Medical Pharmacology is one of the best pharmacology books for medical students. The key features of the book are: ✔ Chapters that have been revised and updated to reflect new medications and treatment recommendations. ✔ The book contains a wide range of subjects, from fundamental pharmacological ideas to real-world therapies and the advancement in medication and treatment. ✔ Novel medications that work by altering the function or turnover of these molecules have been included in a new chapter on “Nitric Oxide and Vasoactive Peptide Signal Molecules.” ✔ Drugs that are marked in India have been given priority, and their top brand names and dosage forms are included. ✔ A list of acronyms is supplied at the book’s opening. ✔ All newly marketed medications are mentioned. ✔ Charts that categorize drugs visually, aiding in the development of pictorial memory. ✔ There have been several new figures, charts, tables, and highlight boxes added. ✔ Place a strong emphasis on “evidence-based medicine” by often citing reliable research and endpoint trials. ✔ The “Problem Directed Study” at the end of the majority of chapters offers a therapeutic decision-making activity. ✔ Contains appendices on Solutions to Problem Directed Study, Prescription in Pregnancy, Drugs in Breastfeeding, and Drugs and Fixed Dose Combinations Prohibited in India. ✔ The book concludes with a brief list of pertinent resources for additional study.
Review of Pharmacology	Govind Rai Garg & Sparsh Gupta	It is one of the best-selling books on the subject. A must-buy book for the NEET PG, INI-CET, and other competitive examinations. The book has a question bank in every chapter including MCQs and IBQs. The key features of the book include: ✔ Facts and ideas based on KDT 8th, Katzung 13th, Goodman Gilman 13th, Harrison 20th, and CMDT 2022 newest versions. ✔ A distinct chapter with explanations of mathematical issues. ✔ Includes IBQs and MCQs with explanations. ✔ In each chapter, recent advancements are mentioned. ✔ “New FDA-approved Drugs” annexures are separate documents. ✔ Mnemonics can help you recall important information about novel medications. ✔ Annexures of the “Drug of Choice” for various ailments. ✔ The benefits of both antegrade and retrograde study. ✔ Simple to-remember mnemonics.
Pharmacology for Medical Graduates	Tara V Shanbhag, Smita Shenoy	The key features of the book are: ✔ Questions based on the format used by examiners for both theoretical and practical sections. ✔ Language is simple to grasp because of the concise headers and specific pharmacological descriptions. ✔ Information is presented clearly and point-by-point, which is helpful for UG students preparing for exams. ✔ Adding basic illustrations, self-explanatory flowcharts, tables, and student-friendly mnemonics to the text. ✔ New subjects have been presented, such as CNS stimulants, drugs for the treatment of psoriasis, and medications for acne vulgaris. ✔ We acknowledge the inclusion of definitions, and treatment plans by WHO standards (for TB, leprosy, malaria, and HIV), RNTCP guidelines (for TB), and JNC guidelines (from 2003) for the categorization of blood pressure. ✔ The Tara Shanbhag’s Pharmacology for Medical Graduates fully revised edition will be helpful for both working physicians and medical students.

To get conceptual clarity on MBBS courses online, click here.

Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS) is an undergraduate degree in medicine. The course is of four and a half years, followed by one year of compulsory rotational internship. There are a total of 19 subjects in the MBBS curriculum.

There are three subjects in the first year of the MBBS, Anatomy, Biochemistry, and Physiology. There are numerous books available for the MBBS subjects but choosing the right set of books is highly important.

Here’s a list of recommended books for MBBS 1^st year students:

Best Books of Anatomy for MBBS Students:

Subject: Anatomy	Author	Description
Self-Assessment and Review of Anatomy	Rajesh K Kaushal	The book is written in simple language with labelled diagrams, tables, and flowcharts making it easier for students to read and learn. The book has 11 chapters, including general anatomy, embryology, histology, neuroanatomy, head and neck, back, thorax, upper limb, abdomen, pelvis, and lower limb. It provides conceptual clarity over all the topics including the clinical applications. Every chapter includes questions along with a detailed explanation.
New Across: A Complete Review of Short Subjects	Saumya Shukla, Siddharth Dixit, Anurag Shukla & Khushi Shukla	It is one of the best-selling MCQ books on short subjects. To make the students learn easily, the subjects are divided into theory and MCQs along with concise notes for each chapter. The book contains tables, figures, flowcharts, and mnemonics to help students prepare and memorize well. It is even recommended as one of the best books for NEET-PG preparation.
Human Anatomy	BD Chaurasia, Krishna Garg	The book follows the CBME pattern along with the latest updates and advancements. The chief feature of the book includes the hand-drawn line diagrams by Dr. BD Chaurasia and color codes in the drawings. FAQs and MCQs are structured in the ‘clinical mode’. Early Clinical Exposure (ECE) has been offered in the form of a specific case’s signs, symptoms, investigations, and treatment. Viva voce questions, molecular regulation, clinic-anatomical problems, ossification, and dissection (steps) are all included in the book.
Gray’s Anatomy for Students	Raveendranath Veeramani, Sunil Jonathan Holla, Parkash Chand & Sunil Chumber	It is the gold standard book for anatomy. The updated edition incorporates ground-breaking elements like set introductions, chapter summaries, and flowcharts to aid learning. Levels I, II, and III are listed as the “structures to be identified in a dissection,” which correspond to the content that is “must know,” “desirable to know,” and “good to know,” respectively. Updates on imaging methods have been made, and dissection has received the appropriate amount of emphasis to help students understand the value of having a solid understanding of the relevant anatomy. To encourage readers to refer to the visuals while learning, more figure numbers are mentioned in the text. The beginning of each chapter includes helpful review aids. The cranial nerves have received more attention by having their pertinent details described with numerous extra examples and flowcharts.
Cunningham’s Manual of Practical Anatomy	Rachel Koshi	This textbook is the perfect practical anatomy book for undergraduate students because it features clear language that is easy to read. Each dissection starts with learning objectives, and the dissection lab makes it simple to follow with detailed step-by-step instructions. Full colour, completely revised artwork brings the amiable explanations to life. Anatomy’s relationship to clinical medical practice is explained in new clinical application boxes and radiological images throughout the book. Multiple-choice questions at each section’s conclusion allow students to rapidly review their understanding before looking up the solutions in the appendix.

 

Best Books of Biochemistry for MBBS Students:

Subject: Biochemistry	Author	Description
Self-Assessment and Review of Biochemistry	Rebecca James Perumcheril	The book is a complete concept-based study with the latest references and includes image-based information, high-yield topics, mnemonics, and tables. It is highly recommended for the competitive entrance examinations as it comprises the previous year’s questions. The book contains the chapter reviews based on Harper’s 31st ed, Lehninger’s 7th ed, and Robbin’s 9th ed and clinically correlated with facts from Harrison’s 20th ed, Nelson’s 20th ed, and CMDT 2019.
Textbook Of Biochemistry for Medical Students	DM Vasudevan, Sreekumari S & Kannan Vaidyanathan	The book is accepted as one of the textbooks of Biochemistry by MCI. This edition’s inclusion of clinical case studies in nearly every chapter is one of its main draws. The students will be assisted in determining the clinical applicability of biochemistry through this feature. In most of the chapters, additional points that are clinically pertinent are added. The latest advancements in molecular biology have been included. There are 50 chapters in all and 6 parts in this textbook. Nearly every chapter concludes with essay questions, quick notes, multiple choice questions, and viva-voce style questions. This textbook includes roughly 1,000 figures, 200 tables, and 200 boxes, all of which make the book more user-friendly for students.
Biochemistry	U. Satyanarayana & U. Chakrapani	The key features of the book include Self-assessment exercises, Origins of Important Biochemical Words, Common Confusables in Biochemistry, Practical Biochemistry Principles, Clinical Biochemistry Laboratory, Case Studies with Biochemical Correlations, and Reference Biochemical Values. The book features a four-line verse at the start of each chapter, then the text with clinical correlations, a summary, and self-evaluation exercises. The content and graphics are engaging, and the proper headings and subheadings are in bold to make it easier to read and remember. It includes the fundamentals (Bioorganic and Biophysical Chemistry, Tools of Biochemistry, Immunology, and Genetics), Confusables in Biochemistry, Origins of Biochemical Words, Principles of Practical Biochemistry, and Clinical Biochemistry Laboratory for novices to study Biochemistry simply. The book contains highly illustrative colorful images which help the students memorize easily.
Lippincott Illustrated Reviews: Biochemistry (South Asian Edition)	Denise R. Ferrier SAE Editors: Ritu Singh, Rajeev Goyal	The book explains how biochemistry relates to routine medical care through interdisciplinary, chapter-based cases and “Clinical” boxes scattered throughout. With a clear outline format, a tonne of full-color illustrations, and chapter summaries, learning and studying are made simple. It includes an expanded chapter on macronutrients and micronutrients and much more. The chapter on blood clotting is a bonus point of the book.
Harper’s Illustrated Biochemistry	Kathleen Botham, Peter J. Kennelly, Owen McGuinness, P. Anthony Weil, Peter Kennelly, Victor Rodwell	The book includes the following important topics: Toxic naturally occurring amino acids, extraterrestrial biomolecules, computer-aided drug design cells, basophils, and eosinophils, the role of the complement cascade in bacterial and viral infection, secreted mediators of cell-cell signalling between leukocytes, the hazard of antioxidants that down-regulate radical signalling for apoptosis and increase risk of cancer and much more. With case studies emphasizing the clinical relevance of biochemistry, review questions following each of the eleven sections, “Objectives” boxes defining the goals of each chapter, and tables encapsulating crucial information, this authoritative guide presents information in a way that helps you retain everything you read. More than 600 pictures are included in this book, which also contains a section on the topic’s biomedical value in each chapter.

Best Books of Physiology for MBBS Students:

Subject: Physiology	Author	Description
Principles of Physiology	Debasis Pramanik	The use of coloured boxes to highlight complex physiology themes in the text is one of the book’s most appealing elements. The themes are broken down into twelve sections, with the first section providing a thorough explanation of general physiology. The second section discusses the physiology of nerve and muscle. All of the pertinent hematology-related subjects are outlined in the third section. The circulatory system, the digestive system, and the excretory system are all covered in detail in the fifth, sixth, and seventh sections, respectively. The respiratory system is covered in detail in the fourth section. The ninth section goes into detail about metabolism. The neurological system, endocrine system, and reproductive system are all carefully described in the ninth, tenth, and eleventh sections, respectively.
Review of Physiology	Soumen Manna	This book’s content is arranged into eight divisions, each of which contains nineteen chapters, according to the various organ systems. General physiology, nerve-muscle physiology, the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, the central nervous system, the renal and gastrointestinal systems, and the endocrine and reproductive systems are among these sections. Each chapter begins with a brief introduction to the topic before moving on to multiple-choice questions (MCQs) and their clear, short, and accurate explanations, which are supported by citations to relevant research papers and/or standard textbooks. Important details have been retained in the “side boxes” so that students can quickly and easily review the text. This edition also includes a brand-new chapter called “Male and Female Reproductive Physiology”.
Crisp Complete Review of Integrated Systems Physiology	S Krishna Kumar	This book provides straightforward explanations of physiological fundamentals. It includes information from pharmacology and pathophysiology integrated at the conclusion of each topic. It includes an analysis of ECG questions, an analysis of questions pertaining to acid-base disorders, an analysis of calculations pertaining to respiratory physiology, image-based questions at the conclusion of each chapter, and significant one-liner IOLs.
Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology (South East Edition)	John E. Hall, Michael E. Hall Adaption Editors: Mario Vaz, Anura Kurpad, Tony Raj	It includes broader clinical coverage of degenerative diseases like obesity, metabolic and cardiovascular issues, and Alzheimer’s disease. Flowcharts and flow diagrams are used to simplify complex concepts and processes for easier comprehension. Better knowledge of Physiology by the more than 1000 expertly made illustrations and sketches that are included. It provides a clinically oriented viewpoint, connecting fundamental physiology and pathology, and highlighting key cellular and molecular mechanisms in clinical medicine. Based on the most recent research in the field and updated throughout using the Guyton and Hall Textbook of Physiology, 14th edition. The book’s information has been revised to reflect all topics covered under the new MCI curriculum.
Textbook of Physiology	A.K. Jain	The book has two volumes. Over 700 figures, 2000 multiple-choice questions, and more than 1000 study questions are included. For a better understanding of clinical topics, numerous clinical images have been included. Each chapter’s study questions have been changed in accordance with standards provided by the Medical Council of India (MCI). General Physiology, Blood, Nerve, and Muscle Physiology, Digestive, Cardiovascular, Respiratory, and Excretory Systems are all included in Volume I. The organ systems covered in Volume II are the nervous system, the reproductive system, the endocrine system, metabolism and nutrition, and the special senses. The South Asian Edition’s main characteristics are extensive material revisions and updates, a lengthy section on micronutrients, and blood coagulation.

 

To get conceptual clarity on MBBS courses online, click here.

Can you crack NEET PG in 2 months? The answer is yes! However, cracking NEET PG in 2 months is no easy feat and requires serious dedication, diligence, and hard work. Cracking NEET-PG in 2 months is possible with frequent revision of all the concepts an aspirant has learned in his/her MBBS years. There is no doubt that NEET PG is one of the toughest exams in India but learning how to crack NEET PG in first attempt is even harder. Given the vastness of the syllabus, the fierce competition, and the limited time frame, let’s figure out exactly how you can channel all your motivation towards learning how to prepare for NEET PG 2023 in 2 months.

1. Create A Dedicated Study Schedule – Forming a study schedule that details exactly what topics you need to study and when to study is essential in the path to cracking NEET PG in 2 months. By analysing the syllabus and assessing your weak points, you can create a highly effective and productive timetable for NEET PG 2023 preparation in 2 months. By creating a personalised and productive timetable for NEET PG preparation in 2 months, you can get started each day without having to waste time deciding what you need to study as it will all be planned out for you to simply follow.

Here’s a 2 Months subject-wise revision plan for NEET-PG 2023:

Part	Number of days to complete each subject	Total number of days
PART 1
Anatomy	3 days	9 days
Physiology	2 days
Biochemistry	2 days
Solve NEET PG practice questions and previous year’s question papers	2 days
PART 2
Microbiology	2 days	12 days
Pathology	3 days
Pharmacology	3 days
Forensic Medicine & Toxicology	1 day
Solve NEET PG practice questions and previous year’s question papers	3 days
PART 3
Community Medicine & PSM	3 days	10 days
ENT	2 days
Ophthalmology	2 days
Solve NEET PG practice questions and previous year’s question papers	3 days
PART 4
Dermatology	1 day	13 days
Medicine	5 days
Psychiatry	1 day
Pediatrics	1 day
Solve NEET PG practice questions and previous year’s question papers	5 days
PART 5
Surgery	5 days	16 days
Anaesthesia	1 day
Orthopaedics	1 day
Radiology	1 day
Obstetrics & Gynecology	3 days
Solve NEET PG practice questions and previous year’s question papers	5 days
Solve one NEET-PG mock exam every two weeks to boost your preparation and manage time

Every aspirant has their own competencies so you can personalize the above shared plan according to your difficulty level of any subject.

2. Practice Previous-Year Papers – Studying past years’ papers can help you adjust to the method of questioning while also providing good practice. Your 2-month study plan for NEET PG 2023 should be loaded with as many relevant past papers and sample papers as possible. By slotting breaks to only attempt these papers after several rounds of revision, you can make the most out of your 2 month study plan for NEET PG 2023.

Click here to know the important topics of Pharmacology for NEET-PG.

3. Revise Thoroughly – Memorising and understanding such a large syllabus is not an easy task, especially when your plan rests on how to prepare for NEET PG 2023 in 2 months. Thus, the answer for cracking NEET PG in 2 months comes through the form of repeated bouts of revision. Make sure you periodically revise topics you’ve already studied, either through mock tests, other self-assessment, or even repeatedly reading your notes. Try flowcharts, mnemonics, flashcards to memorize well.

Click here to know the important topics of Community Medicine for NEET-PG.

4. Learn To Sacrifice – If you want to know how to prepare for NEET PG 2023 in 2 months, the simple solution is learning to prioritise and sacrifice certain things. During your 2 month study plan for NEET PG 2023, you will come across some topics that are personally too difficult or time-consuming, so plan to clear your concepts of these topics first. For this, you can resort to online platforms like DigiNerve which provides best content by India’s top faculty.

Click here to know the important topics of Microbiology for NEET-PG.

Now that the question of ‘Can you crack NEET PG in 2 months’ has been answered, and guidelines for an effective timetable for NEET PG preparation in 2 months have been given to you, get started! For more tips on how to crack NEET PG 2023 in first attempt, click here and clear your concepts with DigiNerve.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs):

Q1. When will be NEET PG 2023 exam conducted?

Ans. NEET-PG 2023 exam will be conducted in the month of March.

Q2. Will NEET-PG 2023 be held?

Ans. Yes, NEET-PG will be held in 2023 as per the notifications till now. The NExT exam is likely to be held from year 2024.

Q3. How many times a year is NEET PG held?

Ans. The NEET-PG exam is held once in a year.

 

 

The National Eligibility Cum Entrance Examination-Post Graduate (NEET PG) is a medical entrance exam that goes around in the minds of MBBS students all the time, and getting a good rank to secure an MD/MS seat is a dream for all MBBS graduates.

Remember,

Perseverance makes all the difference.

Getting a high rank in the exam is a tough task, but not impossible. To score 600+ marks in NEET PG 2024, you must plan an effective preparation strategy, keeping in mind subject weightage, the pattern of the exam, high-yielding topics, and the best preparation books. Considering the vast syllabus and the competition, an aspirant should start the preparation in the early phase itself.

Here are some reliable preparation tips to secure a good rank in the NEET PG 2024 entrance examination.

Preparation Tips for NEET PG 2024

1. Make an effective preparation strategy

Keeping in mind the time left for the exam, prioritize your schedule. Make a realistic plan you can stick to and devote your time according to the topics, including those that you haven’t started, those that are unclear, and those that you only need to revise once. Time management and work-life balance are the two factors that should be kept in mind for an effective plan, especially during postings. Knowing the exam pattern and subject weightage would also help you prepare a better preparation strategy.

Below is a 3-month effective preparation strategy to crack NEET PG 2024.

Subject-wise time division:

Part	Number of days to complete	Total days
PART 1
Anatomy	5 days	13 days
Physiology	3 days
Biochemistry	3 days
Revision	2 days
PART 2
Microbiology	5 days	19 days
Pathology	5 days
Pharmacology	4 days
Forensic Medicine & Toxicology	2 days
Revision	3 days
PART 3
Community Medicine & PSM	7 days	15 days
ENT	2 days
Ophthalmology	3 days
Revision	3 days
PART 4
Dermatology	3 days	17 days
Medicine	5 days
Psychiatry	3 days
Pediatrics	3 days
Revision	3 days
PART 5
Surgery	7 days	26 days
Anaesthesia	3 days
Orthopaedics	3 days
Radiology	3 days
Obstetrics & Gynecology	6 days
Revision	4 days

Keep the rest of the time for quick revision and practicing previous year’s NEET PG practice questions.

2. Analyze your level of understanding

Analyze your level of understanding of the syllabus and subjects for the NEET PG exam. Divide your time and make your study plan as per your level of understanding in the subject and module. Don’t ignore the subjects which seem boring to you as doing so can prove to be the wrong decision ever. It is hence advised to make short notes and flashcards of the important dates, events, and information for quick revision, especially in scoring subjects such as PSM.

3. Set your target

As per your preparation strategy, set your daily, weekly, or monthly targets and keep up your pace. Completion of the tasks will boost your confidence every time. For instance, you can set your target as completing at least two previous year’s papers in a week depending upon your schedule. It is advised that while solving the question papers, make sure you read about the incorrect options along with the correct answer to upskill your preparation. Always read the question and options carefully. Don’t jump to the conclusion and try to rule out the incorrect options while practicing and reading about them.

Don’t get overburdened with tasks. Take breaks.

4. Revision

Don’t just read topics; get your concepts cleared to improve retention. Learning and revising should go together. If you have read any topic today, then revise it within 5–10 days and don’t leave it for later, as you’ll be loaded with more topics by then. So, regular revision is a must to brush up on your concepts. This technique of balancing learning and revising helps in memorizing well and reduces last-minute pressure.

Always prefer to study from your notes, including flowcharts, tables, and mnemonics for the NEET PG exam.

For instance,

A. The mnemonic ‘SAMPLE history’ is to remember all the events for the diagnosis.

Signs and symptoms

Allergies

Medications

Past medical history

Last meal

Events

B. Another mnemonic to remember for pain is SOCRATES.

Site

Onset

Character

Radiation

Associated symptoms

Timing

Exacerbating or relieving factors

Severity (/10)

 

5. Practice MCQs

Solving MCQs gives you exposure to the NEET-PG 2024 exam pattern. After completing each topic, go through its self-assessment questions, which benefit your learning in two ways: first, you’ll be able to assess your level of understanding of the topic, and second, you’ll know the types of MCQs that can be framed from the topic in the exam.

This practice also helps you analyse the topics, which in general have more direct questions, or IBQs, clinical case-based questions, and more. This helps you enhance your problem-solving skills.

6. Solve Previous year’s questions

Solving PYQs is a must. This makes you familiar with the exam pattern and monitors your progress. It is advisable to practice PYQs with your timer on. Time management plays a vital role in the examination. PYQs for the NEET-PG exam will help you get familiarized with the NEET-PG 2024 exam paper pattern along with the types of questions asked. This practice also instills confidence in you.

7. Focus on high-yielding topics

Make a proper list of subjects with their high-yielding topics, and make sure you don’t miss any for the exam. Make proper notes on these topics and revise them properly while solving MCQs and PYQs.

Click here to know the important topics of Microbiology for NEET-PG.

Click here to know the important topics of Community Medicine for NEET-PG.

Click here to know the important topics of Pharmacology for NEET-PG.

Click here to know the important topics of Pathology for NEET PG.

8. Prioritize your health

While keeping up your pace for NEET PG 2024, don’t exhaust your body and mind. Keep yourself healthy to study effectively. It can be easy to develop harmful habits like bingeing on junk food, skipping workouts, isolating oneself excessively, or even sinking into a depressed state of mind while preparing for NEET PG.

However, maintaining a healthy lifestyle, eating wholesome foods, engaging in brief bursts of much-needed socialization, and regularly monitoring your mental health are of the utmost importance, particularly if you want to score 600+ in the NEET PG 2024. Make sure you get proper sleep, minimize your level of stress, and meditate. It is important to stay focused and have a positive mindset. Have faith in yourself. Keep yourself hydrated and stay away from distractions.

To get conceptual clarity on MBBS courses online, click here.

 

Ever since medicine has been in existence, so has pathology. Knowledge of pathology is essential to understand the illness, from the cause and investigation of the disease to diagnosis and treatment. Learning all the terminologies used in pathology lab reports is also important. It will be very difficult to treat patients and prevent disease progression without a complete understanding of the subject.

The whole subject, as far as an undergraduate student is concerned, deals with

1. Etiology: The cause of the disease
2. Pathogenesis: Steps in which certain events occurred that finally led to the disease
3. Histopathological examination, of any disease: Involves dealing with gross appearance and microscopic examination.

Branches of Pathology

Pathology subject has two types of branches:

1. Morphological Branches include:

• Histopathology
  • Surgical pathology
  • Experimental pathology
  • Forensic pathology and autopsy work
• Cytopathology
  • Exfoliating cytology
  • Interventional cytology
  • Hematology

2. Non-morphological Branches include:
   • Clinical pathology
   • Clinical biochemistry
   • Microbiology
   • Immunology
   • Medical genetics
   • Molecular pathology
   • Molecular cytogenetics

Important topics of Pathology for MBBS students

General pathology forms the base for the units that lie ahead.

General pathology will introduce you to terms that will be used time and again, so if you do not understand those terminologies, you will never be able to comprehend systemic pathology. For example, terms like hyperplasia, metaplasia, etc. will be used very commonly, and if you are not aware of what they mean, then it will be very hard to understand diseases.

Hematology is another part of Pathology. You must do your best while studying this unit, because all your basic knowledge about examining the blood test reports, and your skills in investigating a patient of anemia, will come from here.

Other high-yielding pathology topics for NEET PG 2023 include Inflammation, Anemia, Macrocytic Anemia, Acute Leukemias, Chronic Leukemias, Thalassemia, Lymphadenopathy, etc.

From the systemic pathology, units like the Kidney, GIT, Lungs, and Hepatobiliary system are highly important  for NEET PG aspirant. Not just this, Tuberculosis and Diabetes Mellitus are two diseases you cannot skip, because of their increasing prevalence in India.

Watch below video lectures on high-yielding Pathology topics by top Pathology faculty.

Recommended books for Pathology

One of the favorites among students and the highly recommended book is Jaypee publishers’ “Textbook of Pathology” by Prof. Harsh Mohan. The book has a single volume and the language and content are easier to understand. The histopathology diagrams include both microscopic pictures and hand-drawn images, which makes it easier for students to memorize and reproduce those images in the exams. There are appropriate flowcharts and a lot of tables, which take lesser time to read and learn.

Another recommended book for Prof exam preparation is Prof. Ramadas Nayak’s “Pathology Exam Preparatory Manual for Undergraduates”. The book has covered all the topics lucidly with illustrations, tables, flowcharts, etc. The book is highly recommended for notes and revision.

For the practical part of pathology, there is another book by the author, Prof. Harsh Mohan, titled, ‘Practical Pathology’. This book will be very helpful for lab sessions and practical examinations. It has histopathology of most of the slides and specimens that form a part of your practical viva.

Paper Pattern of Prof Exams

After the advent of Competency-Based Medical Education in 2019, the pattern of examination changed. Now, you will have two papers of 100 marks each, unlike earlier, where two papers of 40 marks each were taken. There will be a practical for 100 marks after your university exams. Hence, pathology as a total will carry 300 marks.

How to study Pathology?

You will often hear from your teachers that, Pathology is a very volatile subject, which is true. But does that mean you will never be able to learn it? Well, absolutely not. The key to mastering pathology is revision. Revision, revision, and only, revision.

Studying things once and expecting to remember you entirely in the exam will never work. Rather, regularly reading and revising will help you a lot in the long run.

Here are a few tips that will help you a lot to study Pathology in MBBS:

Stick to one book

Do not refer to multiple books. Doing so will only create confusion. Also, while revising for exams, you do not have a lot of time to revise your syllabus, hence you mustn’t increase your load by referring back to multiple books. Thoroughly read Harsh Mohan’s Textbook of Pathology and practice the diagrams well. You can practice the self-assessment questions from various resources.

Find online Pathology courses

It has been time and again proven that our pictorial and visual memory is very strong and long-lasting. Hence, watching videos, and attempting image or video-based questions related will help you a lot and feed things into your memory for a longer duration.

DigiNerve offers Pathology for UnderGrads online course, developed and mentored by the most renowned authors, Prof. Harsh Mohan, Prof. Ramadas Nayak, and Dr. Debasis Gochhait. The course has been enriched with their knowledge and experience which will help in fulfilling your study needs completely. All the topics are arranged in a sequential hierarchy to avoid confusion. The video lectures along with self-assessment questions and notes help you in concept-building. The lectures follow a case-based approach supported by video demonstrations. The lectures are richly illustrated including clinical, radiological, histological, and gross images along with flowcharts and tables for easy understanding and quick recall.

The course also focuses on practicals in pathology including gross specimens that are highly important for examination.

Make notes

Pathology subject is hefty, hence, keep your notes handy. This will help you to go through the highlights of each chapter in the least time during revision. Make tables and flowcharts while you study in class or watch video lectures. This will help you a lot in last-minute revision.

Practice diagrams

To have an edge over other students, you should practice diagrams frequently. Diagrams and flowcharts will fetch you more marks. You should be extremely well-versed in histopathology diagrams. The pathology book by Prof. Harsh Mohan provides excellent histopathology diagrams, which are easily reproducible in exams.

Pay attention in lab sessions

Do not ignore your practical classes. You can get to learn a lot in those few hours. You will get familiar with gross specimens and histopathology slides of various diseases there. Understand it all there and then, and half of your theory will be prepared in your lab only.

To get conceptual clarity with the help of MBBS courses online, click here.

 

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q 1 – What is Pathology?

Ans : Pathology is referred to as the ‘study of diseases’. It is a branch of science that deals with structural and functional changes in diseases, which present with clinical signs and symptoms.

Q 2 – Why is it important to study Pathology?

Ans : It is important to study Pathology to understand the illness, from the cause and investigation of the disease to diagnosis and treatment. It becomes very difficult to treat patients and prevent disease progression unless you have a good knowledge of pathology subject. Learning all the terminologies used in pathology lab reports is also very crucial.

Q 3 – Which book should I read for Pathology?

Ans : “Textbook of Pathology” by Prof. Harsh Mohan is the most recommended pathology book for in-depth learning and scoring high in exams. Another recommended book for prof exam preparation is Ramadas Nayak’s “Pathology Exam Preparatory Manual for Undergraduates”.

Q4 – Can I refer to online resources for studying Pathology?

Ans : Yes, online resources can be very helpful in concept building and learning. One such affordable and reliable resource is DigiNerve’s Pathology for UnderGrads course. The course is designed as per the new CBME curriculum. It consists of video lectures, notes, and self-assessment questions along with clinical case discussions and practicals in pathology.

 

INI-CET is a combined national-level entrance examination for admission to the medical postgraduate courses – MD, MS, DM (6 yrs), MCh (6 yrs), and MDS at INI institutes (Institute of National Importance). The INI-CET January session 2023 exam is around the corner. Getting admission to INI institutes is highly challenging and a dream for MBBS students. This is a highly competitive task to secure a seat in the renowned medical colleges in India.

Remember, Perseverance is the key.

The INI-CET exam is going to be held on 13^th Nov 2022 for admission to the AIIMS INI-CET January session 2023.

Mode and Scheme of INI-CET January 2023 exam

Particulars	Description
Mode of Examination	Computer-based test (CBT)
Duration	3 hours (180 minutes)
Number of questions	200
Types of questions	Objective type
Marking Scheme	+1 mark for every correct response and -1/3 for every incorrect response

 

Important things to know:

• If more than one candidate scores the same, then this tie-breaker situation is resolved by applying the following criteria sequentially:

1. 1. Less negative marks
   2. Older by age

• Candidates equal to 8 (eight) times the number of postgraduate seats available in each category will be called for the first and second rounds of seat distribution based on the INI-CET merit list.
• Spot Round Counseling will only be conducted if the seats will remain vacant even after the open round counseling.

List of Participating Institutes for INI-CET January 2023 Session

S. No.	Name
1	AIIMS, New Delhi
2	AIIMS, Bhopal
3	AIIMS, Bhubaneswar
4	AIIMS, Jodhpur
5	AIIMS, Nagpur
6	AIIMS, Patna
7	AIIMS, Raipur
8	AIIMS, Rishikesh
9	AIIMS, Bibinagar
10	AIIMS, Bhatinda
11	AIIMS, Deoghar
12	AIIMS, Mangalagiri
13	AIIMS, Raebareli
14	JIPMER, Puducherry
15	NIMHANS, Bengaluru
16	PGIMER, Chandigarh
17	SCTIMST, Trivandrum

 

Here’s the tentative seat distribution (Category-wise) for admission to various MS/MD/DM (6 years)/MCh (6 years)/MDS courses at AIIMS, New Delhi and other 12 AIIMS through the INI-CET entrance examination for the January session of 2023.

Table 1: Tentative seat distribution for INI-CET January 2023 session at AIIMS, New Delhi:

Courses	Subject/Specialty	Total Number of Seats	UR	OBC	SC	ST	EWS
MD	Anaesthesiology	17	7	5	3	1	1
MD	Anatomy	5	2	1	1	1	0
MD	Biochemistry	8	4	2	1	1	0
MD	Biophysics	8	3	2	1	1	1
MD	Community Medicine	9	5	2	1	0	1
MD	Dermatology & Venerology	5	1	2	1	0	1
MD	Emergency Medicine	2	1	1	0	0	0
MD	Forensic Medicine	4	1	1	1	0	1
MD	Geriatric Medicine	3	1	1	1	0	0
MD	Lab. Medicine	5	2	1	1	0	1
MD	Medicine	11	5	3	2	0	1
MD	Microbiology	5	2	1	1	0	1
MD	Nuclear Medicine	4	3	0	0	0	1
MD	Obstetrics & Gynecology	11	4	3	2	1	1
MD	Ophthalmology	6	3	1	1	1	0
MS	Orthopaedics	4	1	1	1	0	1
MS	Otorhinolaryngology	5	1	1	1	1	1
MD	Pediatrics	10	3	3	2	1	1
MD	Palliative Medicine	4	3	1	0	0	0
MD	Pathology	10	4	3	1	1	1
MD	Pharmacology	6	1	2	1	1	1
MD	Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation	2	2	0	0	0	0
MD	Physiology	10	5	2	1	1	1
MD	Psychiatry	4	1	1	1	0	1
MD	Radiodiagnosis & Internventional Radiology	4	1	1	1	1	0
MD	Radiation Oncology	4	3	1	0	0	0
MS	Surgery	8	3	2	1	1	1
MD	Transfusion Medicine	5	2	2	1	0	0
MDS	Conservative Dentistry & Endodontics	1	0	1	0	0	0
MDS	Pediatrics & Preventive Dentistry	2	0	1	0	0	1
MDS	Prosthodontics	1	0	1	0	0	0
MCh	Neuro Surgery M.Ch (Direct 6 year Course)	2	2	0	0	0	0
MCh	Paediatric Surgery M.Ch (Direct 6 year Course)	2	2	0	0	0	0
DM	Infectious Diseases DM(Direct 6 year Course)	4	4	0	0	0	0

Table 2: Tentative seat distribution for INI-CET January 2023 session at AIIMS, Bhopal:

Courses	Subject/Specialty	Total Number of Seats	UR	OBC	SC	ST	EWS
MD	Anaesthesiology	6	5	1	0	0	0
MD	Anatomy	1	0	0	1	0	0
MD	Biochemistry	2	1	1	0	0	0
MD	Community Medicine	5	2	1	0	1	1
MS	ENT	3	1	1	1	0	0
MD	Forensic Medicine & Toxicology	2	1	1	0	0	0
MD	General Medicine	3	1	0	1	0	1
MS	General Surgery	2	1	1	0	0	0
MD	Microbiology	2	1	1	0	0	0
MD	Obstetrics & Gynecology	3	1	0	1	1	0
MD	Ophthalmology	3	1	1	0	0	1
MS	Orthopaedics	4	2	1	1	0	0
MD	Pediatrics	4	2	1	0	1	0
MD	Pathology	4	1	1	1	0	1
MD	Pharmacology	2	1	1	0	0	0
MD	Physiology	1	0	0	1	0	0
MD	Psychiatry	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	Radiodiagnosis	4	1	2	0	0	1
MD	Radiotherapy	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	Transfusion Medicine & Blood Bank	2	0	0	1	1	0

Table 3: Tentative seat distribution for INI-CET January 2023 session at AIIMS, Bhubaneswar:

Course	Subject/Specialty	Total Number of Seats	UR	OBC	SC	ST	EWS
MD	Anaesthesiology	9	3	2	2	1	1
MD	Anatomy	7	3	2	2	0	0
MD	Biochemistry	3	1	0	1	1	0
MD	Community Medicine	5	2	1	1	0	1
MD	Dermatology	3	1	1	0	1	0
MD	Emergency Medicine	5	2	1	1	1	0
MS	ENT	3	1	1	1	0	0
MD	Forensic Medicine & Toxicology	5	2	1	1	1	0
MD	General Medicine	3	2	0	0	0	1
MS	General Surgery	6	2	2	1	0	1
MD	Microbiology	2	1	0	1	0	0
MD	Nuclear Medicine	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	Obst. & Gynecology	6	3	1	1	0	1
MD	Ophthalmology	2	0	1	1	0	0
MS	Orthopaedics	6	4	1	0	0	1
MD	Pediatrics	5	2	1	1	1	0
MD	Pathology	5	2	1	1	0	1
MD	Pharmacology	4	1	1	1	0	1
MD	Physiology	6	2	1	1	1	1
MD	PMR	2	1	0	0	0	1
MD	Psychiatry	4	1	0	1	1	1
MD	Radiodiagnosis	3	2	0	0	1	0
MD	Radiotherapy	3	1	1	0	0	1
MD	Transfusion Medicine	3	1	1	1	0	0

 

Table 4: Tentative seat distribution for INI-CET January 2023 session at AIIMS, Jodhpur:

Course	Subject/Specialty	Total Number of Seats	UR	OBC	SC	ST	EWS
MD	Anaesthesiology & Critical Care	17	6	5	3	1	2
MD	Anatomy	2	1	1	0	0	0
MD	Biochemistry	3	1	1	0	0	1
MD	Community Medicine	6	2	2	1	1	0
MD	Dermatology & Venerology	3	1	1	1	0	0
MD	Emergency Medicine	4	2	1	1	0	0
MD	Forensic Medicine & Toxicology	4	2	1	0	1	0
MD	General Medicine	4	2	1	1	0	0
MS	General Surgery	7	2	2	1	1	1
MD	Microbiology	6	2	2	1	0	1
MD	Nuclear Medicine	3	1	1	0	1	0
MD	Obstetrics & Gynaecology	5	2	1	1	0	1
MD	Ophthalmology	4	2	1	1	0	0
MS	Orthopaedics	5	2	1	0	1	1
MS	Otorhinolaryngology	6	2	1	1	1	1
MD	Paediatrics	8	3	2	1	1	1
MD	Pathology	7	2	2	1	1	1
MD	Pharmacology	3	2	1	0	0	0
MD	Physiology	4	2	1	1	0	0
MD	PMR	4	2	1	1	0	0
MD	Psychiatry	5	2	1	1	0	1
MD	Radiology	5	2	1	1	0	1
MD	Transfusion Medicine & Blood Bank	2	1	1	0	0	0
MCh	Paediatric Surgery (M.CH. 6 Years)	2	2	0	0	0	0
DM	Radiation Oncology (D.M. 6 Years)	2	2	0	0	0	0

 

Table 5: Tentative seat distribution for INI-CET January 2023 session at AIIMS, Patna:

Course	Subject/Specialty	Total Number of Seats	UR	OBC	SC	ST	EWS
MD	Anaesthesiology	18	8	5	3	1	1
MD	Anatomy	5	3	1	0	1	0
MD	Biochemistry	9	4	3	2	0	0
MD	Community Medicine & Family Medicine	8	3	2	1	0	2
MD	Dermatology	1	0	0	1	0	0
MS	ENT	2	1	0	0	1	0
MD	Emergency Medicine	7	2	2	2	0	1
MD	FMT (Forensic Medicine & Toxicology)	4	2	1	0	0	1
MD	Medicine	6	5	1	0	0	0
MD	Microbiology	3	1	1	1	0	0
MD	OBG (Obstetrics & Gynaecology)	5	1	1	0	2	1
MD	Ophthalmology	4	1	1	1	0	1
MS	Orthopaedics	5	2	2	1	0	0
MD	Pediatrics	7	2	2	1	1	1
MD	Pathology	5	0	2	1	1	1
MD	Pharmacology	3	3	0	0	0	0
MD	Physiology	7	4	2	1	0	0
MD	PMR	2	0	1	1	0	0
MD	Psychiatry	4	2	1	0	0	1
MD	Radiodiagnosis	4	1	1	1	1	0
MD	Radiotherapy	2	0	2	0	0	0
MS	Surgery	5	2	1	1	0	1
MCh	Pediatric Surgery (MCh 6 Years)	3	3	0	0	0	0

Table 6: Tentative seat distribution for INI-CET January 2023 session at AIIMS, Raipur:

Course	Subject/Specialty	Total Number of seats	UR	OBC	SC	ST	EWS
MD	Anaesthesiology	13	4	4	2	1	2
MD	Anatomy	3	2	1	0	0	0
MD	Biochemistry	4	1	1	1	0	1
MD	Community Medicine	8	3	2	1	1	1
MD	Dermatology	2	1	0	1	0	0
MD	Emergency Medicine	8	3	2	1	1	1
MS	ENT	5	2	2	1	0	0
MD	Forensic Medicine & Toxicology	2	1	0	0	0	1
MD	General Medicine	9	4	3	1	0	1
MS	General Surgery	8	3	3	1	0	1
MD	Microbiology	5	2	2	1	0	0
MD	Nuclear Medicine	1	0	0	0	1	0
MD	Obstetrics & Gynaecology	7	2	1	2	0	2
MD	Ophthalmology	8	4	2	1	1	0
MS	Orthopaedics	5	2	1	1	0	1
MD	Pediatrics	7	3	1	1	1	1
MD	Pathology	8	4	2	2	0	0
MD	Pharmacology	3	2	1	0	0	0
MD	Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation	2	0	1	1	0	0
MD	Physiology	2	0	1	0	0	1
MD	Psychiatry	4	1	1	1	1	0
MD	Radiodiagnosis	4	1	2	1	0	0
MD	Radiotherapy	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	Transfusion Medicine	4	3	1	0	0	0
MDS	Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery (MDS)	1	1	0	0	0	0
MDS	Pediatric and Preventive Dentistry (MDS)	1	0	1	0	0	0

Table 7: Tentative seat distribution for INI-CET January 2023 session at AIIMS, Rishikesh:

Course	Subject/Specialty	Total Number of Seats	UR	OBC	SC	ST	EWS
MD	Anaesthesiology	7	3	2	1	0	1
MD	Anatomy	2	1	1	0	0	0
MD	Biochemistry	4	2	0	0	1	1
MD	Community & Family Medicine	3	2	1	0	0	0
MD	Dermatology & Venerology	2	1	1	0	0	0
MD	Emergency Medicine	3	2	0	1	0	0
MS	ENT	3	2	1	0	0	0
MD	Forensic Medicine & Toxicology	2	1	0	0	0	1
MD	General Medicine	4	3	1	0	0	0
MD	Geriatric Medicine	1	0	1	0	0	0
MS	General Surgery	3	1	1	0	0	1
MD	Microbiology	2	1	0	0	0	1
MD	Nuclear Medicine	2	1	1	0	0	0
MD	Obstetrics & Gynaecology	8	4	2	1	1	0
MD	Ophthalmology	6	4	1	1	0	0
MS	Orthopaedics	3	1	1	1	0	0
MD	Pediatrics	3	1	1	1	0	0
MD	Pathology	5	3	1	1	0	0
MD	Pharmacology	2	1	0	0	0	1
MD	Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation	2	1	0	1	0	0
MD	Physiology	3	2	0	0	0	1
MD	Psychiatry	2	1	1	0	0	0
MD	Radiation Oncology	2	1	1	0	0	0
MD	Radiodiagnosis	4	2	1	0	0	1
MD	Respiratory Medicine	3	2	1	0	0	0
MD	Transfusion Medicine	3	2	1	0	0	0
MDS	Periodontics (MDS)	1	1	0	0	0	0
MDS	Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery (MDS)	1	1	0	0	0	0
MCH 6 Years	Pediatric Surgery (MCH 6 Years)	2	2	0	0	0	0
MCh	Plastic, Reconstructive & Burns Surgery (M.CH. 6 Years)	2	2	0	0	0	0
MCh	Neurosurgery (MCH 6 yrs)	1	1	0	0	0	0

 

Table 8: Tentative seat distribution for INI-CET January 2023 session at AIIMS, Nagpur:

Course	Subject/Specialty	Total Number of Seats	UR	OBC	SC	ST	EWS
MD	Anaesthesiology	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	Anatomy	1	0	0	0	0	1
MD	Biochemistry	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	Community Medicine	3	1	2	0	0	0
MD	Dermatology	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	Forensic Medicine & Toxicology	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	General Medicine	3	0	2	0	0	1
MS	General Surgery	3	0	1	1	1	0
MD	Microbiology	3	1	1	1	0	0
MD	Obstetrics & Gynaecology	3	1	1	1	0	0
MD	Ophthalmology	1	1	0	0	0	0
MS	Orthopaedics	1	1	0	0	0	0
MS	Otorhinolaryngology	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	Pediatrics	3	0	1	0	1	1
MD	Pathology	3	0	1	1	1	0
MD	Pharmacology	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	Physiology	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	Psychiatry	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	Radiodiagnosis	1	1	0	0	0	0
MDS	Conservative Dentistry & Endodontics (MDS)	0	0	0	0	0	0

 

Table 9: Tentative seat distribution for INI-CET January 2023 session at AIIMS, Bibinagar:

Course	Subject/Specialty	Total Number of Seats	UR	OBC	SC	ST	EWS
MD	Anatomy	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	Anaesthesiology	2	2	0	0	0	0
MD	Biochemistry	2	1	1	0	0	0
MD	Community Medicine & Family Medicine	2	1	0	1	0	0
MD	FMT	1	0	1	0	0	0
MD	General Medicine	2	1	0	0	0	1
MS	General Surgery	2	1	1	0	0	0
MD	Microbiology	2	1	0	0	1	0
MD	Obstetrics & Gynaecology	2	0	1	1	0	0
MS	Orthopaedics	2	2	0	0	0	0
MD	Peediatrics	2	0	1	1	0	0
MD	Pathology	2	1	0	0	0	1

 

Table 10: Tentative seat distribution for INI-CET January 2023 session at AIIMS, Bathinda:

Course	Subject/Specialty	Total Number of Seats	UR	OBC	SC	ST	EWS
MD	Anatomy	1	0	0	1	0	0
MS	General Surgery	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	Microbiology	2	1	0	0	1	0
MD	Ophthalmology	1	0	0	0	1	0
MD	Physiology	1	0	0	1	0	0
MD	Psychiatry	1	0	1	0	0	0

 

Table 11: Tentative seat distribution for INI-CET January 2023 session at AIIMS, Deoghar:

Course	Subject/Specialty	Total Number of Seats	UR	OBC	SC	ST	EWS
MD	Biochemistry	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	Community Medicine & Family Medicine	1	1	0	0	0	0
MS	General Surgery	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	Microbiology	1	0	1	0	0	0
MD	Pharmacology	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	Physiology	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	Anaesthesiology	1	0	0	1	0	0
MD	Anatomy	1	0	1	0	0	0
MD	FMT	1	1	0	0	0	0
MS	Orthopaedics	1	0	0	0	0	1
MD	Pathology	1	1	0	0	0	0

 

Table 12: Tentative seat distribution for INI-CET January 2023 session at AIIMS, Mangalagiri:

Course	Subject/Specialty	Total Number of Seats	UR	OBC	SC	ST	EWS
MD	Anaesthesiology	2	1	1	0	0	0
MD	Anatomy	2	0	0	1	0	1
MD	Community & Family Medicine	2	1	0	0	1	0
MS	ENT	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	General Medicine	1	1	0	0	0	0
MS	General Surgery	2	1	0	1	0	0
MD	OBG	2	0	1	0	0	1
MS	Orthopaedics	2	1	1	0	0	0
MD	Pediatrics	2	1	0	1	0	0
MD	Pharmacology	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	Physiology	1	0	1	0	0	0
MD	Psychiatry	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	Radiodiagnosis	2	1	1	0	0	0

 

Table 13: Tentative seat distribution for INI-CET January 2023 session at AIIMS, Raebareli:

Course	Subject/Specialty	Total Number of Seats	UR	OBC	SC	ST	EWS
MD	Anaesthesiology	2	1	1	0	0	0
MD	Anatomy	2	0	0	1	0	1
MD	Community & Family Medicine	2	1	0	0	1	0
MS	ENT	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	General Medicine	1	1	0	0	0	0
MS	General Surgery	2	1	0	1	0	0
MD	OBG	2	0	1	0	0	1
MS	Orthopaedics	2	1	1	0	0	0
MD	Pediatrics	2	1	0	1	0	0
MD	Pharmacology	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	Physiology	1	0	1	0	0	0
MD	Psychiatry	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	Radiodiagnosis	2	1	1	0	0	0

 

Last-Minute Tips for INI-CET Exam:

• Candidates must carry all the asked documents such as INI-CET admit card, passport size photograph, valid photo ID proof, and a copy of MCI registration certificate with them on the exam day.
• Reverify all your documents before coming to the exam hall.
• Candidates are advised to go through all the guidelines issued by AIIMS for the examination.
• Candidates must reach the INI-CET exam center before time to avoid any chaos.
• Avoid Stress and be confident.
• Eat healthy and sleep well.
• Time management is a must before and during the exam.

To get conceptual clarity on the MBBS courses online, click here

MBBS course, in the initial two years, revolves around non-clinical and para-clinical subjects. These subjects form the foundation for the clinical subjects that are a part of the last two years of the course.

It has been more than two and a half years since COVID-19 began, and ever since then, lives have changed for the good and bad. More than anything else, what we know now as medicos is, that a single microorganism can do wonders when it comes to projecting virulence. Lately, due to those same reasons, this chapter in our microbiology book has gained importance, and this subject, as a whole, is now in the sheer limelight.

As medical students, it seems difficult to develop an interest in subjects that do not seem to have any visible application, like microbiology, and other non-clinical subjects, like biochemistry. However, irrespective of the specialty, you’ll be in, you will be expected to have complete knowledge of all your undergraduate subjects, and that is when you’ll be known as a Top Doc. For this reason, you can’t ignore any of your nonclinical subjects, no matter how boring they might seem.

Microbiology course for undergrads is not as disinteresting as most students think it is. Especially after the introduction of the new Competency-Based Medical Education (CBME), the way of learning and teaching microbiology has been improvised a lot whereas the core syllabus isn’t changed much. Earlier, it was based on organism-based approach, but it has now been completely changed to systemic approach, focusing on each of our body’s systems separately and then classifying diseases accordingly.

As an undergraduate, to excel in the university exams, you must know the examination pattern and the important topics of the microbiology subject.

Changes in the MBBS Prof Exam Pattern

The MBBS prof examination pattern is a little different from what batches before 2019 had appeared for. Earlier, the paper had 2 parts of 40 marks each, with 20 marks of practical. From 2019 batch onwards, the pattern has changed to 2 parts of 100 marks each, and a 100 marks practical, i.e., a total of 300 marks for each of the MBBS 2^nd year subjects. The exam now consists of MCQs, case scenarios, short answer questions, and long answer questions.

So, whenever you begin reading microbiology for your final exams, start from the beginning because the entire microbiology is an extension of general microbiology. If your general microbiology is weak, you will never gain confidence in the rest of the syllabus.

Recommended books for Microbiology for UnderGrads include “Essentials of Medical Microbiology” and “Essentials of Medical Parasitology” by Dr. Apurba Sastry and Sandhya Bhat.

Important Topics of Microbiology in MBBS

Let’s know the important topics in Microbiology from MBBS prof exam’s and entrance examination’s perspective.

A medico can easily get to learn all the important topics with Dr. Apurba Sastry’s “Essentials of Medical Microbiology” book. Besides the book, one can also get conceptual clarity with the online course – Microbiology for UnderGrads by Dr. Apurba Sastry, Dr. Sandhya Bhat, and Dr. Deepashree R. This course is aligned with the textbook by the same author.

GENERAL MICROBIOLOGY MODULE

• Contributions of Louis Pasteur
• Koch’s Postulates
• Bacterial cell wall
• Flagella
• Bacterial growth curve (a must-know topic)
• Anaerobic culture methods
• Antimicrobial susceptibility testing
• Horizontal gene transfer
• Antimicrobial resistance
• Exotoxin vs endotoxins
• Isolation techniques for viruses
• Classification with examples (parasites and fungi)

IMMUNOLOGY MODULE

• Innate immunity vs acquired immunity
• Active immunity vs passive immunity
• Definitions of antigen, hapten, super antigens
• Structure of an antibody
• Various classes of immunoglobulins
• Monoclonal antibodies
• Basic mechanism of precipitation reaction and agglutination reaction
• ELISA (in detail)
• MHC
• Cytokines
• Hypersensitivity reactions with their types
• Mechanisms and examples of autoimmunity
• Mechanism of graft rejection
• Types and examples of vaccines

Before you begin reading the systems, there are chapters on sterilization and disinfection, which have gained more importance after COVID-19. These are highly important chapters because they will teach you basic things like biomedical waste management, PPE kits etc.

So, there are a few questions that are very frequently asked from
STERILIZATION AND DISINFECTION

• Healthcare-acquired infections (definition, and examples)
• The steps of hand washing (will rarely come as a theory question but this holds practical application)
• Types of masks
• Steps of donning and doffing
• CAUTI and VAP
• Definitions of sterilization, disinfection, and cleaning
• Autoclave
• ETO
• Disinfectants (according to the levels)
• Methods to test the efficacy of sterilant
• Color coding of dustbins
• Definition and management of needle stick injury
• Water surveillance

SYSTEMIC MICROBIOLOGY MODULE

Bloodstream & Cardiovascular Infections

• Infective endocarditis
• Acute rheumatic fever
• Fuo
• Typhoid
• Scrub typhus
• Brucellosis and leptospirosis
• HIV (in detail)
• Dengue
• Malaria
• Leishmaniasis
• African sleeping sickness
• Lymphatic filariasis
• Systemic candidiasis

Gastrointestinal Tract Infections

• Mechanism of diarrhea and agents
• Lab diagnosis of diarrhea
• Food poisoning
• Botulism
• Types of E.coli
• Shigella
• Cholera
• Rotavirus diarrhea
• Intestinal amoebiasis
• Giardiasis
• Intestinal taeniasis
• Trichura
• Entrobias
• Ascariasis
• Hookworm

The Hepatobiliary System

• Hepatitis
• Liver abscess
• Hydatid cyst

Skin & Musculoskeletal System Infections

• Diabetic foot
• Staph aureus infections
• Streptococcus pyogenes infections
• Gas gangrene
• Lab diagnosis of leprosy
• HSV infections
• VZV infections
• Measles
• Cutaneous leishmaniasis
• Cutaneous larva migrans
• Superficial mycoses

Respiratory Tract Infections

• Agents of respiratory tract infections
• Diptheria
• Pneumonia
• Tb (a very important topic for us as Indians because this disease is very common in our country)
• Influenza
• Coronavirus (which you cannot skip)
• Infectious mononucleosis
• Aspergillosis

CNS Infections

• Meningitis
• Tetanus
• Rabies especially the vaccine prophylaxis
• Cerebral malaria
• Sleeping sickness

Urinary tract Infections

• Pathogenesis of UTI
• Syphilis, especially the lab diagnosis
• Agents of UTI
• Chancroid
• Chlamydia infections

Miscellaneous Infections

• Congenital syphilis
• Oncogenic viruses
• Zoonotic infections
• Bite wound infections

You will also have to prepare for the practical exam, wherein, passing the practical exam is as important as the theory exam. Moreover, because it holds a weightage of 100 marks, you cannot go unprepared.

Click here to watch online microbiology video lecture snippets by Dr. Apurba Sastry.

Must know topics for practical examination

• Basic staining techniques, like gram staining and Zn staining, Albert staining
• Bacterial colony characteristics and their biochemical identification reactions
• Principles behind the reactions and their reagents.
• parasites and how to prepare mounts of stool specimens
• OSPE stations where several instruments used in the microbiology lab can be kept for spot identification.

Important Topics for Microbiology subject in MBBS (For NEET-PG and INI-CET entrance examinations)

During your MBBS, not just the university exams, but your focus should also be on the early preparation of your competitive exams if you dream to settle in a decent post-graduation specialty. There are two main exams currently being held in India, the INI-CET and NEET PG 2023/NEXT. The weightage of microbiology in the INI-CET is approximately 14-16 questions every year and in NEET PG 2023 almost 10 questions are asked every year.

Some of the important topics are mentioned below:

General Microbiology

Includes bacterial cell wall, bacterial toxins, hot air oven, autoclave, chemical antiseptics and disinfectants, disinfection in a healthcare setting, mac conkey agar, bacterial gene transfer (transformation, transduction, and conjugation), lytic and lysogenic phase of a bacteriophage life cycle, and bacterial growth curve.

Bacteriology

Includes morphology, virulence factors, pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, and lab diagnosis of Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Pneumococcus, Enterobacteriaceae (coliforms-proteus, shigella, salmonella), Vibrio, and Mycobacterium (tuberculosis).

Slight overview of Neisseria, Clostridium, Pseudomonas, Brucella, Mycoplasma, wound infection (staph), and invasive diarrhea is important.

Cover UTI, STDs (Syphilis), Meningitis, and FUO.

Virology

Study Orthomyxoviruses: Influenza (Hemagglutinin, Neuraminidase, Antigenic drift, and shift), Hepatitis B, lab diagnosis, Corona, HIV, ELISA, and a slight overview of Herpes.

Cover Picornavirus: Polio, Rabies virus

Mycology

Include Classification, Dermatophytes, Mycetoma, Rhinosporidiosis, and Histoplasmosis.

Cover Opportunistic: Aspergillosis, Candidiasis, Zygomycosis, Cryptococcus, and Pneumocystis

Parasitology

Life cycles, morphology, lab diagnosis, and clinical manifestations of Ascaris, Trichuria, Enterobius, Echinococcosis (Hydatid cyst), Entamoeba, Giardia, Cryptosporidium, Plasmodium, Leishmania and Wuchereria, Taenia, Ancylostoma, and Toxoplasmosis.

Don’t miss out on these important topics to score high in exams. Undoubtedly, all of us have a different method of learning and DigiNerve has got you covered in all situations. If you are among those who grasp more from visual learning, Microbiology for UnderGrads is one of the best online microbiology course designed by renowned authors, Dr. Apurba Sastry, Dr. Sandhya Bhat, and Dr. Deepashree R. This online microbiology course comprises highly illustrative video lectures and notes, along with self-assessment questions and case studies. The lectures follow the new CBME approach to provide conceptual clarity and score high in the prof as well as entrance examination.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1. What are the major topics of microbiology?

The important topics for microbiology include Bacterial cell walls, bacterial toxins, hot air ovens, autoclaves, chemical antiseptics, and disinfectants. In the Bacteriology module, Morphology, virulence factors, pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, and lab diagnosis of Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Pneumococcus, Enterobacteriaceae (coliforms-proteus, shigella, salmonella), Vibrio, Mycobacterium (tuberculosis) and in Parasitology module, Life cycles, morphology, lab diagnosis, and clinical manifestations of Ascaris, Trichuria, Enterobius, Echinococcosis (Hydatid cyst), Entamoeba, Giardia, Cryptosporidium, Plasmodium, Leishmania and Wuchereria, Taenia, Ancylostoma, and Toxoplasmosis are important topics for exams.

2. Is microbiology important for NEET PG?

Yes, microbiology is important for the NEET PG exam. Approximately, 10 questions come from the microbiology subject in the NEET PG entrance examination every year.

3. How to learn Microbiology for MBBS online?

A medico can subscribe to the online microbiology course or access the online video lectures available on youtube. Microbiology for UnderGrads is one of the best online microbiology courses designed by renowned authors, Dr. Apurba Sastry, Dr. Sandhya Bhat, and Dr. Deepashree R. This online microbiology course comprises highly illustrative video lectures and notes, along with self-assessment questions and case studies. The lectures follow the new CBME approach to provide conceptual clarity and score high in the prof as well as entrance examination.

4. Which is the best book for microbiology for MBBS students?

The recommended books for Microbiology for UnderGrads include “Essentials of Medical Microbiology” and “Essentials of Medical Parasitology” by Dr. Apurba Sastry and Sandhya Bhat.

 

The National Medical Commission (Undergraduate Medical Education Board) has issued new guidelines and the academic calendar for MBBS 2022-2023 batch on 12th Oct 2022.

As per the new NMC guidelines, the classes for the first-year MBBS batch will start on 15th Nov 2022.

Academic Calendar for the 2022-2023 MBBS Batch

According to the new NMC guidelines, there is a change in the academic calendar of MBBS 2022-2023. However, the duration of the MBBS course is the same i.e., 5.5 years including a one-year rotational internship.

For the academic year 2022-2023, the one-year compulsory rotational internship will start from the 1st June 2027 and end on 31st May 2028, as per the CRMI 2021 regulations.

The following guidelines have been issued by the NMC for the 2022-23 MBBS batch:

• The MBBS batch will commence on 15th Nov 2022.
• The college vacations and examination schedules may be notified as per the affiliated universities of the respective colleges.

Other board guidelines are as follows:

1. Regarding Electives – 2 blocks of 15 days each are to be adjusted by the colleges for
   • Pre/para-clinical branches
   • Clinical branches
2. In the 2022-2023 academic batch, the supplementary exams will be conducted with a gap of 1 month from the regular exams and the results will be declared within 15 days.
3. There shall be no supplementary MBBS batches.
4. The remaining rules and regulations shall remain the same as per the GMER (Graduate Medical Education Regulations) 1997. You can visit the site for GMER 1997 details: https://www.nmc.org.in/rules-regulations/graduate-medical-education-regulations-1997/
5. The Yoga and Family Adoption Program through village outreach shall continue for the 2021-2022 MBBS Batch.

Along with the changes in the curriculum and the guidelines mentioned above, a few more notifications have been issued by the NMC from the 2022 batch:

• The NMC has created an Anti-Ragging Committee and Dr. Aruna V. Vanikar, President, UGMEB has been appointed as the chairperson of the committee.
• In the NMC notification stated on 4 Oct 2022, the implementation of HMIS (Hospital Management Information System) is mandated in all medical colleges.
• The NEET UG counselling link is active from 11th Oct 2022 on the MCC official website: https://mcc.nic.in.

 

Click here to read about the NMC NExT Exam update 2023 including the guidelines, complete structure, exam dates and more.

Forensic Medicine & Toxicology is one of the important subjects, included in the 3^rd Prof of the MBBS curriculum. The word ‘forensic’ has been derived from the word ‘forensis’ which means forum. FMT course in MBBS makes a medico learn the application of the knowledge of forensic medical sciences to legal issues. Toxicology includes the study of toxic elements, poisons’ properties, activities, toxicity, fetal dose, detection, quantification, therapy, and autopsy results. In this course, a medico is well informed about their medico-legal responsibility during the practice. Thus, forensic toxicology focuses on the legal and medical consequences of the toxic effects of chemicals on humans. In US & Europe, Forensic Medicine is also known as Legal Medicine or State Medicine.

Objectives of FMT course in MBBS

• The course provides complete knowledge of the law in regard to medical practice, medical ethics, and code of conduct.
• It talks about the medico-legal facets of medicine.
• The purpose of the course is to make undergraduate students much capable of observing and legally inferring correct conclusions. The students are also made to learn the way of handling and keeping track of criminal cases or medico-legal cases in an integrated manner.
• It provides knowledge of the administration, relevant medical laws, procedures, and their requirements.
• The Forensic Medicine course must not be thought as just a passing subject, its significance is well-ascertained during medical practice.
• Practically, a medico must develop a basic awareness of the legal system, observe, and analyze cases carefully, and act calmly.

Course Content

The MBBS course curriculum of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology:

Part I: FORENSIC MEDICINE

• General Introduction
• Forensic Pathology
• Clinical Forensic Medicine
• Medical Jurisprundence
• Forensic Psychiatry
• Forensic Sciences

Part II: TOXICOLOGY

• General Toxicology
• Clinical Toxicology
• Environmental Toxicology
• Analytical Toxicology

Along with the theory lectures, the MBBS course curriculum also includes practical and demonstration sessions in Forensic Medicine & Toxicology.

Pre-requisite for success in FMT

The four things are pre-requisite for success in FMT:

• Power of Observation
• Power of Deduction
• Wide range of exact knowledge
• Power of constructive imagination

Tips on how to approach FMT the right way

1. Read from Recommended books

• “Review of Forensics Medicine & Toxicology (5^th edition)” by Dr. Gautam Biswas. The book has many features like, each chapter starts with the Learning Objectives, further categorized into (a) must know and (b) desirable to know topics. It also includes important topics, MCQs, image-based questions, and case studies at the end of each chapter.
• “Principles of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology” by Rajesh Bardale
• “Essentials of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology” by KS Narayan Reddy, and OP Murty

2. Focus on Conceptual clarity

A student must focus on clearing the concepts for a better understanding of the subject. Mugging up in medical sciences doesn’t help in the long run. FMT is a blend of theoretical medico-legal knowledge along with practical sessions on criminal cases, post-mortem cases, chemical injuries, and a lot more. So, it is important to clear all your doubts and focus on conceptual clarity to excel in the subject.

3. Simplify your learning with notes

Making notes help filter down the lengthy content of the syllabus. It helps in learning and memorizing concepts easily. It proves for a great benefit during the last-minute revision. Notes also help in memorizing the topics at the time of explanation during lectures and marking important points. They are the best for a quick revision before exams.

4. Focus on high-yield topics:

Some of the important topics in FMT are:

• Legal Procedure
• Identification
• Thanatology
• Asphyxia
• Injuries
• Rape
• General toxicology
• OPC poisoning
• Snakebite
• Medicinal poisoning

Watch this video to know the right way to approach FMT in MBBS

• Attend Case Demonstrations

Medical is not just reading books and learning. It is more of practical knowledge and application of the theory into the practical and real world. In medical science, case studies and demonstrations are a must. A medico should never skip any case demonstration session. They form a base for treating the patients in their medical practice efficiently. It is crucial to enhance your FMT learning with practical sessions and case studies. A medico can also understand the case demonstrations via visuals and 3D imaging available in the online MBBS courses.

6. Memorize well

The easiest and the best way to memorize is to learn through flowcharts, images, charts, and tables. Learning in a structured format helps in memorizing well in long run. It helps in correlating the topics and clearing the concepts. Try to make your mnemonics for learning to make the most of your visual memory.

7. Practice Assessment questions

The best way to analyze your learning is to go through maximum self-assessment questions. It helps in a recap of the topic studied. It also gives a green light to the conceptual clarity of the topic. It not only improves knowledge but is highly beneficial from an exam perspective. A medico can opt for online FMT courses that provide frequently asked self-assessment questions.

Online Lectures to boost your learning

The Forensic Medicine & Toxicology for UnderGrads course has been developed and conducted by a renowned faculty and author, Dr. Gautam Biswas, who is known for his publications “Review of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology”, “Recent Advances in Forensic Medicine and Toxicology volume-1 and 2”, and “Manual of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology”.

The course is well equipped with highly illustrative video lectures with 1400+ self-assessment questions and worthy notes. Case scenarios and case demonstrations are also included in the online FMT course.

The lectures for the course interestingly cover every relevant topic. The course’s content is clear and succinct with flowcharts, animations, brief videos, photographs, tables, differentiation, and line diagrams to help students understand concepts better. It includes case studies at the very beginning and discussion at the end of sessions along with live videos to explain the concept/procedures. Relevant MCQs have been integrated in every lecture including few image-based MCQs after each topic are also provided with explanation. It covers points to remember at the end for viva and forthcoming NEET PG 2023 exams. The FMT online course is designed for medical students to help them be ready for both their university exams and the NEET PG/NExT Exam.

To get conceptual clarity on Clinical Forensic Medicine, Click here.

Table of Content – Forensic Medicine & Toxicology for UnderGrads course

• Orientation
• General Information
• Forensic Pathology
• Clinical Forensic Medicine
• Medical Jurisprudence (Medical Law and ethics)
• Forensic Psychiatry
• Forensic Laboratory investigation in medical-legal practice
• Thanatology
• General Toxicology
• Pharmaceutical Toxicology
• Sociomedical Toxicology
• Jurisprudence and Forensic Medicine – Qbank
• Toxicology – Qbank

All these modules include detailed sub-topics as per the CBME curriculum.

Scope of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology

• Forensic Scientist
• Forensic Expert
• Clinical Investigator
• Criminologist
• Research Associate
• Forensic Medicine Professor
• Jobs at Intelligence Bureau
• Forensic Analyst at Investigation firms
• Manager Forensic Advisory
• Forensic Pathologist
• Medical Officer
• Toxicologist

A medico must keep all senses open while dealing with FMT cases and willingness to work is a must.

FAQs

1. Where can I study FMT online?

Dr. Gautam Biswas’s Forensic Medicine & Toxicology for UnderGrads course is an online FMT course which is well equipped with highly illustrative video lectures, concise notes and 1400+ self-assessment questions. Case scenarios and case demonstrations are also included in this course.

2. What is FMT in MBBS?

FMT discloses the medico-legal facets of medicine. The purpose of the course is to make undergraduate students much capable of observing and legally inferring exact conclusions. The students are also made to learn the way of handling and keeping track of criminal cases or medico-legal cases in an integrated manner. A medico is well informed about their medico-legal responsibility during their medical practice.

3. How do I pass forensic medicine in MBBS?

Make sure not to skip any lecture and case demonstration sessions. Make notes and study on regular basis. You can also opt for an online FMT course to boost your learning with the help of video lectures, case demonstrations, notes, and self-assessment questions for practice.

 

A cataract is referred to as the development of any opacity in the lens or its capsule. It may occur either due to the formation of opaque lens fibers (congenital and developmental cataracts) or due to a degenerative process leading to the opacification of normally formed lens fibers (acquired cataracts).

Classification:

The Etiological Classification includes the following types of cataracts:

• Congenital and Developmental Cataract
• Acquired Cataract
• Senile cataract
• Traumatic cataract
• Cataracts in systemic diseases
• Electric cataract
• Radiational cataract
• Toxic cataract

The Morphological Classification includes the following types of cataracts:

• Capsular Cataract
• Subcapsular Cataract
• Cortical Cataract
• Nuclear Cataract
• Polar Cataract

SENILE CATARACT

Senile cataract is also known as Age-related cataract and is the most common type of acquired cataract. It affects equally all persons of either sex above the age of 50 years. The condition is usually bilateral, but in most cases, one eye is affected before the other.

ETIOLOGY

Some of the risk factors associated with Senile cataracts:

1. Age: It is the most important factor.
2. Sex: Its prevalence is greater in females.
3. Heredity
4. Ultraviolet Irradiations: It is responsible for the early onset and early maturation of senile cataracts.
5. Dietary factors: Diet deficiency in certain proteins, amino acids, and vitamins (riboflavin, vitamin A, C, E).
6. Dehydration Crisis
7. Smoking: When a person smokes, it leads to the accumulation of pigmented molecules like 3-hydroxykynurenine and chromophores, which lead to the yellowing of the lens.

HOW LENS LOSES ITS TRANSPARENCY?

Lens gets affected in different ways in nuclear and cortical senile cataracts. In cortical cataracts, there is a decrease in the soluble crystalline lens proteins, amino acids, and potassium associated with an increase in the concentration of sodium, which ultimately results in over hydration of the lens. While in nuclear cataracts, there is age-related nuclear sclerosis associated with dehydration and compaction of the lens. It is associated with an increase in water-insoluble proteins.

STAGES OF MATURATION

1. In-nuclear type of Cataract

The sclerotic process continues and leads to the hardening of the lens and decreases the ability of accommodation. The changes start from the centre and spread towards the periphery slowly.

2. In-cortical type of cataract

Firstly, there is a stage of lamellar separation which is the earliest sign where the formation of vacuoles occurs in the cortex. These changes are reversible. It is followed by a stage of an incipient cataract where wedge-shaped or saucer-shaped opacity is seen. Then comes the final three stages of cataracts: immature, mature, and hyper mature (morgagnian and sclerotic) cataracts.

CLINICAL FEATURES

The clinical features include the symptoms, signs, and complications.

Symptoms:

1. Glare
2. Uniocular diplopia
3. Colored halos around light
4. Poor colored discrimination
5. Black spots in front of the eye
6. Image blur and misty vision
7. Deterioration of vision

Signs:

1. Visual acuity: It is 6/9 to PL+ and PR in all quadrants
2. Test for iris shadow: It is seen in immature cataracts.
3. Colour of lens:

• In nuclear cataracts: amber, brown, black, reddish
• In immature senile cataract: greyish white
• In mature senile cataract: pearly white
• In morgagnian hyper mature cataract: milky white
• In sclerotic hyper mature cataract: dirty white

4. Morphology of lens: It is best seen by slit lamp examination.
5. Distant direct ophthalmoscopy:

• Absence of opacity: reddish yellow fundal glow observed
• Partial cataractous: black shadow against the red glow observed
• Complete cataractous: no red glow observed

Complications:

1. Phacoanaphylactic uveitis
2. Lens-induced glaucoma
3. Subluxation or dislocation of the lens

Click here to watch the best online video lectures on lens and cataract.

MANAGEMENT OF CATARACT IN ADULTS

1. NON-SURGICAL MANAGEMENT

To delay the progression of the disease:

• Vitamin E and aspirin can be taken
• Topical preparations containing iodide salts of calcium and potassium can be taken

2. 2. To treat the cause of cataract: control diabetes, remove cataractogenic drugs, removal of irradiations
   3. To improve vision in early stages of cataract: prescription of glasses, arrangement of illumination, use of dark goggles, and mydriatic agent.

2. SURGICAL MANAGEMENT

Indications:

1. Visual Improvement
2. Medical Indications
3. Cosmetic Indications

PREOPERATIVE EVALUATION AND WORKUP

1.) Ocular examination

It includes the following parameters:

• Visual status assessment
• Pupil
• Anterior segment evaluation
• Intraocular pressure
• Examination of lids, conjunctiva, and lacrimal apparatus
• Dilated fundus examination
• Retinal function tests
• B- scan ultrasonography
• Electrophysiological evaluation
• Keratometry, corneal topography, and biometry

2. General medical examination of the patient

The medical examination should include the following:

• History of current medication
• Any family history
• Investigations

3. Preoperative medications

The preoperative prescribed medication includes:

• Antibiotics
• IOP lowering agents
• Mydriatic agent
• Anaesthetic agents

4. Surgery

• Earlier, couching was done in which the cataractous lens was pushed into the vitreous cavity, and it was the first surgery introduced.
• Then, crude extracapsular cataract extraction was done but soon it became unpopular due to marked complications.
• Later, intracapsular cataract extraction was introduced but nowadays it is not performed due to complications. It is reserved only in cases of subluxated or dislocated lens.
• Now comes the modern technique of extracapsular cataract extraction, which is the preferred method in all cases of cataract surgeries.

OVERVIEW OF EXTRACAPSULAR CATARACT EXTRACTION SURGERY:

In this method, the anterior capsule’s major portion is removed along with the anterior epithelium, nucleus, and cortex leaving behind the intact posterior capsule.

Indications:

• For almost all types of cataract surgeries in adults and children unless contraindicated.

Contraindications:

• In the subluxated or dislocated lens.

        Advantages :

• Universal operation
• Posterior chamber IOL can be implanted after ECCE
• Postoperative vitreous-related complications are not seen
• Incidences of postoperative complications are much less like endophthalmitis, cystoid macular edema, and retinal detachment.
• Postoperative astigmatism is less
• Incidence of secondary rubeosis in diabetics is reduced

Different Techniques of Extracapsular Cataract Extraction:

1. Conventional extracapsular cataract extraction
2. Manual small incision cataract surgery
3. Phacoemulsification
4. Femtosecond laser-assisted cataract surgery

Presently, the phacoemulsification technique has become the preferred method of cataract extraction worldwide because the complications are much lesser as compared to other methods of cataract extraction.

However, in countries like India, manual small incision cataract surgery has the advantages of sutureless surgery as well as a low-cost alternative to phacoemulsification.

SURGICAL TECHNIQUES FOR CHILDHOOD CATARACTS:

The surgical methods opted for the childhood cataracts, include:

1. Lens aspiration
2. Lensectomy

INTRAOCULAR LENS IMPLANTATION:

IOL is the method of choice for correcting aphakia.

Types Of IOLs:

• Based on the method of fixation in the eye, the different types of IOL are:

1. Anterior chamber IOL
2. Iris-supported lens
3. Posterior chamber lenses

• Depending upon the material of manufacturing, the different types of IOL are:

1. Rigid IOLs
2. Foldable IOLs
3. Thinner foldable IOLs
4. Ultra-thin foldable IOLs

• Based on focusing abilities, the different types of IOL are:

1. Monofocal IOLs
2. Multifocal IOLs
3. Trifocal IOLs

• Special function IOLs, the different types of IOL are:

1. Aniridia IOLs
2. Implantable miniature telescope
3. Piggyback IOLs

• Spherical versus Toric IOLs
• Aphakic versus Phakic Refractive IOLs

Indications of IOL:

It is done in each and every case being operated for cataract unless and until it is contraindicated.

BIOMETRY is the calculation of IOL:

Nowadays online toric IOL power is calculated.

Equipment for Biometry:

1. A-Scan Ultrasonic Biometer
2. Optical Biometer

Techniques of IOL Implantation:

• Primary IOL Implantation refers to the use of IOL during any surgery for a cataract.
• Secondary IOL Implantation is done to correct aphakia in the previously operated eye.

POSTOPERATIVE MANAGEMENT FOLLOWING CATARACT SURGERY

1. The patient is asked to sit leaned back on chair for 30 minutes.
2. Any NSAIDs may be given orally for mild to moderate postoperative pain.
3. The bandage or eye patch is applied till the next morning. The eye is inspected for any postoperative complications.
4. Antibiotic eye drops are used 4 times a day for 7-10 days.
5. Topical steroids eye drops are given 3 to 4 times a day and are taken for 6-8 weeks.
6. Topical ketorolac or any other NSAIDs with eye drops are given 2 to 3 times a day for 4 weeks.
7. Topical timolol eye drops

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Frequently Asked Questions

1. What causes senile cataract?

Ans: Senile cataract etiopathogenesis is not exactly clear, but it is mainly due to the age factor. Other factors are also responsible like heredity, ultraviolet radiation, dietary factors, dehydration crisis, and smoking.

2. What is the most common type of senile cataract?

Ans: Nuclear sclerotic type is the most common of senile cataracts in which there is progressive sclerosis of the nucleus of the lens. It makes the lens inelastic and decreases the  accommodation ability, which hampers the light rays to pass.

3. Is senile cataract curable?

Ans: Yes, senile cataract is curable. It can be treated through surgeries like extracapsular cataract extraction and intracapsular cataract extraction.

4. What happens if cataracts are left untreated?

Ans: If the cataracts are left untreated, they lead to various complications like phacoanaphylactic uveitis, lens-induced glaucoma, and subluxation or dislocation of the lens.

 

Performing invasive and non-invasive treatments on the human body is the surgeon’s basic role. The surgeon attempts to assist the patient in overcoming the disease by assisting the patient with deformities and injuries through the operation. Surgery has a variety of specialties; one can become an eye surgeon, general surgeon, neurosurgeon, cardiovascular surgeon, plastic surgeon, orthopaedic surgeon, or oncologist. You would have observed that the surgeons have a crew supporting them, who make all the necessary preparations before the procedure may begin and assist during the surgery. A surgeon is a medical professional who operates or conducts surgery on patients. Along with doing elective and preventive surgeries on the patients, these medical professionals also perform diagnostic procedures.

Why Consider to Become a Surgeon in India?

India is the second-most populous nation in the world, and its healthcare industry has only grown since its independence. With the growing population and requirement for healthcare facilities, the demand for doctors is increasing.

While we all aim to achieve specific goals in our lives, we all know that we enjoy the journey more than we appreciate the realization of our goals. The field of medicine is fascinating too. Being in a position of understanding the human body and knowing how to bring it back on track and the experiences in between are the ones that you will cherish for your lifetime. Moreover, the satisfaction of saving lives goes far beyond the feeling of anything. Being a doctor is an honor and a responsibility of a lifetime.

There can be millions of reasons to pursue a career in medicine and become a doctor which can be listed here. However, the most important reason is your call. The pathway to becoming a doctor is not an easy one. If you want to become a doctor, you need self-motivation and an unshakable reason for pursuing a career in medicine that should come from within.

How to become a Surgeon in India

Here are a few guidelines that you must follow if you want to become a surgeon in India:

1. Passing the 12^th Grade: Candidates must first complete their 12^th grade or pre-university course (PUC) in physics, chemistry, and biology (PCB) with the necessary cut-offs to become a doctor.
2. Clearing NEET-UG: Students are now required to qualify for the NEET entrance examination. With about 76,928 medical seats available, it is the only entrance exam for MBBS admission in India to MCI-recognized medical colleges. After you get the required percentile, depending on the cut-off marks and attending counseling procedure paves a way for admission to the MBBS course.
3. Completing MBBS course: One of the most well-known graduate degrees for becoming a doctor in India is MBBS, and those who achieved the required percentile in the NEET exam are qualified to pursue MBBS. This 5-and-a-half-year program offers Pre, Basic, and Paramedical topics. A medico gets to learn Medicine & Surgery in MBBS. Additionally, students must complete a 12-month required rotational internship during their MBBS. After successful completion of your MBBS degree, you become eligible for higher studies in Medical Sciences.
4. Clearing NEET-PG: The NEET-PG (National Eligibility Entrance Test-PG), which is administered by the National Board of Examination, would be the basis for admission to MS courses in medical colleges in India. For admission to AIIMS and JIPMER and other INI- Institutes, the INI-CET examination is conducted. Candidates must meet particular examination Eligibility Criteria to pursue an MS degree in an Indian medical college. Further, selection and admissions to medical colleges depend on the cut-off score and merit list.
5. Pursuing an MS degree: The next step after earning an MBBS degree and clearing the NEET PG exam is to earn a PG degree, with MS being one of the most popular PG courses following MBBS. Your path to becoming a surgeon begins with this degree.

Developing both practical and theoretical skills is a requirement of medical college training. Students who are in their last years of medical school must work with patients in clinics and hospitals. Volunteering at community clinics or hospitals helps medical students stand out from their competition. A successful career as a surgeon will be paved by a residency program with a competent mentor in addition to the qualifications and skills for becoming a surgeon.

To get conceptual clarity in MBBS course subjects, access the best online video lectures.

Responsibilities after becoming a surgeon

The following duties often fall under the purview of surgeons:

• Analyzing and evaluating a patient’s medical situation and medical history.
• Engaging in conversation with the patient and addressing any worries they may have regarding their general health and well-being.
• Prescribing the necessary tests and examinations to identify the underlying causes of the patient’s condition.
• Examining and evaluating the test results to diagnose and determine any conclusions.
• Communicating the patient’s most recent state and offering evidence to back up the most recent conclusions.
• Creating and suggesting a remedy to address the issue or perform any surgery if required.
• Following up, reviewing, and assisting patients in taking care of their health as needed to aid in their recovery.

Right Way to Approach Surgery

Some MS Specialisations

• General surgery
• Orthopaedics
• Otorhinolaryngology
• Injury medicine and surgery
• Obstetrics and Gynecology
• Ophthalmology
• Laparoscopic Surgery
• Cosmetic surgery
• Neurosurgery
• Cardiac surgery
• Pediatric surgery

MCh degrees (MCh, or Master of Chirurgiae, is a Latin abbreviation for general surgery) with any specialization from an institution approved by the MCI are required for people who seek to advance their sub-specialization in any field, such as plastic surgery, cardiothoracic surgery, or urology. The MCh degree typically has a lot of research requirements. All candidates who pursue the MCh program must be full-time residents during the three-year training term. MCh can be done as a 5 years course after MBBS or 3 years after MS.

Job Roles

You can choose from several surgical specializations depending on your interests. Types of Surgeon’s Job Roles include:

Neurosurgeon: Covers all elements of brain surgery, including spinal surgery, skull base surgery, pediatric neurosurgery, and a variety of other neurological conditions.

Cardiothoracic Surgeon: Includes Congenital surgery, thoracic surgery, heart failure surgery, transplant surgery, oesophageal surgery, and cardiac surgery are all included in this. In this kind of surgery, conditions affecting the heart, oesophagus, chest, and lungs are treated.

Pediatric Surgeon: From the time a baby is born until they reach adolescence, these surgeons deal with pediatric surgical difficulties.

Orthopaedic Surgeon: Surgery performed on bones, joints, and soft tissues like ligaments, muscles, and nerves are done by orthopaedic surgery, which includes foot, ankle, and knee surgery, rheumatoid, and sports surgery, as well as fractures.

Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeon: They perform the surgery on the face and neck. Correcting face deformities, managing facial damage, and basic surgery to complex head and neck surgeries are all included in the procedures.

Other subspecialties surround vascular, colorectal, breast, endocrine, upper and lower gastrointestinal, kidney, liver transplantation, and a lot more.

Top Surgical Recruiting Firms in India

In India, there are many reputed hospitals where working will feel like a dream:

• Fortis Escorts Heart Institute, Delhi
• Jaypee Hospital, Noida
• Fortis Hospitals
• Apollo Hospitals Group
• Sri Ramakrishna Multi-Speciality Hospital
• Narayana Health
• Max Healthcare and Super Speciality Hospitals

Salary and PayScale of Surgeons

While surgeons in private institutions earn lakhs per month, those working in government hospitals are paid a set wage of 1 to 2.5 lakh. An entry-level surgeon makes about Rs. 9,71,000 annually. A general surgeon with experience can expect to make about Rs. 24,63,000, compared to a mid-career surgeon with 5 to 10 years of experience who can make about Rs. 11,71,000. The income varies depending on various factors, such as the number of surgeries performed, experience, type of surgeon, area of employment, and so on.

Possibilities for a Surgeon

The more accomplishments you have under your belt, the better. The use of technology to do operations with the aid of robots and other instruments will increase your worth and make you an asset to your organization, which is another area where surgeons may set themselves apart. Specialization is undoubtedly a key element that will elevate your status in society; nevertheless, be careful while selecting a speciality because each one requires time and money. Moving to a semi-urban location is another excellent strategy to boost your possibilities. Due to the rapid growth, one may anticipate the opening of new hospitals in these places to draw in more patients from nearby rural areas.

Future of Surgery

Both technology and surgical techniques have seen a significant change recently. The techniques and tools are being improved, which greatly lowers the risk for the patients. The use of robotic surgery and minimally invasive techniques is one direction we anticipate the future of surgery to take. The new techniques have been adopted by many hospitals, and they also hasten recovery times significantly. The doctors can now treat the patient with the aid of micro-cameras. Tissue engineering and regenerative medicines are two other developing areas of surgery. The medical professionals here use biomaterials to aid the patient’s recovery. An illustration would be the use of stem cells or scaffolds to assist a patient with an illness. The subject is still changing. The ability for people to develop organs from patient cells is soon to come.

The demands of this job can be physically and psychologically taxing. A surgeon’s position calls for in-depth medical expertise, as well as precision, devotion, and skill. A career as a surgeon is rewarding since it improves people’s quality of life. It is not an easy job to save a life, it requires lots and lots of hard work, sleepless nights, and years of practice. The average surgeon’s income is quite lucrative, which opens several intriguing career options. Surgeons typically have a lot of work on their plates, including monitoring patients, doing procedures, attending meetings, and completing paperwork. They occasionally might also have extra duties including mentoring junior physicians and conducting research.

To get access to the best online Surgery course for MBBS students, Click here.

Pathology is a branch of medical science that involves the study and examination of the origin and cause of diseases. It facilitates all aspects of patient consideration, from diagnostic testing and treatment advice to using cutting-edge genetic technologies and disease prevention. It is essential to the study of clinical medicine because it serves as a link between many academic disciplines and medicine. By studying Pathology in MBBS, medicos learn how to diagnose the disease or condition including the cause and degree of severity, track the development of the illness, examine the effectiveness of the therapy and manage the patient.

To know the right way to approach pathology in MBBS, Click here.

Why is pathology one of the best fields of study?

The basis for all clinical medicine, including patient care, diagnostic procedures, and treatment strategies, is pathology. To develop potential treatments for diseases, pathologists experiment with cutting-edge technology and carry out a variety of clinical procedures. They make every attempt to develop a more effective method of combating viruses, infections, and other serious health issues. Pathologists play a very crucial role in research, advancing medication, and devising new therapies to battle infections/viruses, contaminations, and infectious diseases.
Some of the fields of Pathology that students can opt for include:

• Clinical Pathology – A clinical pathologist is knowledgeable about the key components of laboratory medicine and various clinical branches. They typically have training in hematology, microbiology, chemical pathology, and many more. A clinical pathologist typically works in a rural town, community hospital, medium-sized medical practice, or other non-metropolitan centers.

• Forensic Pathology – A forensic pathologist’s primary responsibilities include identifying the cause of death and reconstructing the events leading up to it. This is completed in a careful, meticulous manner. The performance of autopsy exams of the internal and external body organs and determining the cause of death is a significant aspect of the function.

• Anatomical Pathology- This area is concerned with disease tissue diagnosis. Anatomical pathologists need to have a thorough knowledge of the pathological and clinical aspects of various diseases.

• General Pathology- A general pathologist typically works in a big rural town, community hospital, medium-sized private practice, or another non-metropolitan setting. They undergo various diagnostic procedures, blood sampling procedures, and various laboratory tasks.

• Chemical Pathology – Another branch of pathology that addresses the full spectrum of disease is chemical pathology. It includes identifying changes in a broad range of chemicals (proteins, electrolytes, and enzymes) in blood and body fluids in connection with numerous disorders.

• Immuno Pathology – Similar to hematology, the discipline of immunology frequently combines clinical work with laboratory medicine (the testing of patient samples, interviewing, examining, and advising patients about clinical problems).

• Microbiology – Diseases due to infectious organisms like bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites are the focus of microbiology.

 Digital Pathology:

It can speed up the delivery of more accurate diagnostic results while minimizing the impact of human error. The processes used in digital pathology allow it to complete routine tasks more quickly without compromising the quality of the work. Digital pathology is slowly gaining specific support for teaching, tissue-based research, medication development, and the global practice of human pathology throughout the world. Digital pathology is quickly gaining attention. It is an invention devoted to lowering laboratory costs, enhancing operational effectiveness, increasing productivity, and enhancing treatment choices and patient care.

Best way to learn Pathology in MBBS

 Refer to Dr. Harsh Mohan’s ‘Textbook of Pathology’
The book includes references as well as the most recent WHO classification of neoplasms and current diagnostic criteria for common diseases. It adheres to a straightforward, clear, replicable, and user-friendly format. Additionally, Prof. Ivan Damjanov generously contributed schematic, gross, and photomicrographs with higher quality and greater resolution to the book. To make it easier for beginners to recognise the structures in the images, each image is labelled. Each topic’s conclusion includes a distinctive eye-catching colour box that summarises the topic’s important themes in bullets for quick review. At the end of each chapter, the book also offers significant review questions (both long-answer types and short-notes on themes) to help the reader get ready and visualise what they will write for the exam.

 Enroll in Dr. Harsh Mohan’s Pathology For Undergrads online course
The course is aligned with Dr. Harsh Mohan’s ‘Textbook of Pathology’. The course focuses on the causes, and mechanisms of disease development (pathogenesis), morphologic changes in cell structure, and the effects of these changes (clinical manifestations). The course’s five key features are General Pathology, Hematology, Systemic Pathology, and Clinical Pathology, including Exfoliative Cytology, Body Fluids, and Cytology in Clinical Care. Pathology practicals include gross specimens that are significant from the perspective of an examination.

Check out Dr. Harsh Mohan’s online course – Pathology for UnderGrads

Pathology in MBBS is an exceptionally wide branch, where more than 19 kinds of specializations coexist. Depending upon their specializations, abilities, and interests, pathologists work either in research facilities, clinics, healthcare centers, or pathology centers. Frequently, they give advice and even decide the most ideal treatment in the event of complicated diseases. The pathological reports are a must for better diagnosis and treatment. The reports help specialists to examine the patient, diagnose diseases, and treat them accordingly. Pathologists utilize gross, microscopic, immunologic, genetic, and molecular modalities to determine the presence of disease and work closely with healthcare specialists, radiologists and researchers. They can sub-specialize in various disciples, like gastroenterology, gynecologic pathology, blood sicknesses, clotting disorder, microbiology, lung and breast cancers, and more.

 

Introduction

• Glaucoma (aka “Kala Motia” in Hindi) is also known as “Silent thief of Sight”, as patients suffering from advanced glaucoma gradually develop irreversible blindness and tunnel-like vision. Patients with advanced glaucoma are not even able to perform their daily routine tasks effectively.
• Glaucoma is very characteristically known by the optic nerve changes and progressive damage to the optic nerve. The changes in the optic nerve results in the characteristic disc appearance and corresponding changes in the visual field.
• The cause for maximum cases is unknown and therefore, primary glaucoma is either idiopathic or has some genetic cases which are yet not precisely known.
• Raised Intraocular Pressure (IOP) is not a part of the definition of glaucoma, as it is just a risk factor.

Broad Classification

• Classification helps to plan a treatment strategy

Key players of diagnosis

For the precise diagnosis, there are five things to keep in mind:

Elaborating the above-mentioned key players in detail:

1. Intraocular pressure

Normal IOP:

• According to the studies, normal IOP has a very wide range but for practical purposes, Mean IOP (GAT): 15±3 mmHg (Range 12-18) is considered.
• The “magic number of 21” is a figure of the past, an obsolete concept.
• In a graphical representation, Normal distribution with a slight skew towards higher values is seen.
• Remember many factors, in addition to glaucoma, influence IOP and can be divided into 2 categories (i) those that exert a long-term influence (e.g., genetics, age, gender, refractive error, and race), and (ii) those that cause short-term fluctuations in the pressure (e.g., time of day, body position, exertion, lid, and eye movement, various ocular and systemic conditions, general anesthesia, and some food and drugs).

Diurnal variation of IOP:

• IOP doesn’t remain the same throughout the day.
• IOP value is generally higher in the morning than in the afternoon; normal fluctuation is about 2-5 mm Hg in a day.
• If the fluctuation is not in the normal range within a day, then this IOP damages the optic nerve over a prolonged period.

Applanation Tonometry:

• Clinically, Goldmann Applanation Tonometer (GAT), a gold standard tonometer is used to measure the IOP. This is one of the most reliable ways of measuring the IOP.

GAT is mounted on a slit lamp and the patient sits on the other side. In the biprism of the applanation tonometer, the doctor can see two green mires under a cobalt blue filter and the endpoint of the pressure is reached when the inner margins of these superior and inferior hemispheres touch each other.

NOTE: Never start treating the patient based on one reading of IOP. Make sure to take 2-3 different readings at different periods on different days to ensure the most reliable reading of IOP.

IOP Paradox:

“Everything within 12-18 mm Hg range is not normal and everything beyond 18 mm Hg is not abnormal”.

There are two paradoxical conditions:

• Paradox 1: When there is GON, i.e., Glaucomatous optic nerve damage but the IOP < 21 mmHg, there is damage to the nerve and visual fields. This entity is called Normal/ Low Tension Glaucoma (NTG/LTG).
• Paradox 2: When the IOP value is > 21 mmHg and there is no optic nerve damage and the visual fields are perfectly fine, this entity is known as Ocular Hypertension (OHT; Normal variant).

NOTE:

• Remember, Refrain from using the word “Normal” in the clinical case scenarios because a range that is normal for one may not be normal for the other.
• If baseline IOP is > 30 mmHg, it is reconfirmed once and the patient should be started on therapy without the need for performing a diurnal IOP recording.

Central Corneal Thickness (CCT):

• It is measured by an instrument named Pachymeter.
• Normal corneal thickness is around 520-550 microns.
• It is an independent predictor of Glaucoma.
• Goldmann applanation tonometer calibrated for CCT of 520 mm: a thinner CCT underestimates true IOP, and thicker CCT overestimates.
• A very thin or very thick cornea can impact the decision-making process regarding the need to treat, or the aggressiveness of the therapy.

2. Optic Disc/ Optic Nerve Head: Normal Vs. Glaucoma

In the optic disc, the central part which is paler than the peripheral part is called the cup, and the reddish-orange part over the cup is called the neuro-retinal rim (NRR)and the entire neural tissue lies here.

There are a few things we need to consider, for the cup is to disc ratio measurement mentioned below:

• We can consider Optic disc as a ‘Donut’. The central part is empty, i.e., non-neural tissue but the peripheral part has neural tissue (NRR), and we should focus on the health of NRR.
• Cup: Disc Ratio: The central part is the cup and the blood vessel are coming and bending out on the neural rim. It is referred to as Cup Diameter/ Disc Diameter.
• Colour Cup: We must not interpret cupping by just looking at the color of the cup.
• Contour Cup: The important point to consider is the bend of the blood vessels coming out of the blood. It tells the exact margin of the cup.
• Correlate with the disc size: Usually, large discs have large cups and this cupping is physiological. However, a small disc with even a small cup must be examined with caution as it is more prone to develop glaucoma because the nerve fibres are tightly packed. Glaucomatous eyes with small discs may have pseudonormal cups.
• High interindividual variability: There is an immense amount of variability in individuals of the same race and in different races.
• ISNT Rule:
• It is the health of the neural rim that accounts for the health of the optic nerve.
• As a rule, the inferior neural rim of the optic disc is the thickest followed by the superior rim followed by the nasal rim, and the temporal rim is the thinnest. This is called the ISNT Rule.
• Nearly 80% of healthy optic nerves follow the ISNT rule. 20% of normal individuals can have different thicknesses of the rims but with all the other tests, we can rule out glaucoma in those individuals.
• In advanced cases of glaucomatous optic neuropathy, there occurs concentric NRR loss.

Glaucomatous Optic Neuropathy (GON):

• Glaucoma is a disease that begins with asymmetry. Initially, the cupping in one eye is different from the other eye. When the asymmetry of the cup: disc ratio between the two eyes is more than 0.2, a person is labelled as Glaucoma Suspect.

Characteristics features of GON include:

• Generalized or focalized increase in the optic cup size and the cup: disc ratio
• Vertical enlargement of the optic cup (especially at the superior and inferior poles)
• Asymmetric cupping (0.2 cup-disc ratio difference) between the two eyes
• Narrowing or notching of the neural rim
• Splinter/ Drance hemorrhages
• Changes in vessel configuration and caliber
• Increased visibility of the lamina cribrosa pores

Accurate documentation with an optic disc drawing at baseline is important and can be supplemented with stereo-optic disc photography. Changes in disc findings are more sensitive indicators of the presence and progression of the disease

3. Gonioscopy

• To classify the anterior angle chambers into Open Angle Glaucoma and Closed Angle Glaucoma, a lens called a Gonioscope to view the angles.
• Why can’t we see the anterior chamber angle with the slit lamp or direct observation?

There is a small protrusion of the scleral tissue which projects anteriorly to the angle just like the watch glass fitted into the rim of a wristwatch. Similarly, because of the projection of scleral tissue, the cornea is fitted like a watch glass. There is a total internal reflection at the cornea-air interface and the light rays do not get out to reach our eyes. So, the curvature of the cornea creates internal reflection and therefore we need an additional lens called a Goniolens.

• What does a Goniolens do?

Gonio lens permits the visualization of the angle by eliminating the cornea as a refracting surface by placing a concave surface against the cornea.

So, these different glasses allow visualization of the angles using obliquely inclined mirrors.

• • What if the angles are closed?
  • Once angle closure is diagnosed, categorize the stage of angle closure
  • Find out the whether the angle closure is appositional or synechial. If the goniolens. is pressed in the centre of the cornea, the aqueous from the centre is displaced towards the angle and open it up artificially. This means that the angle closure is appositional. But if there were adhesions between the iris and the cornea or the lens, there are synechia, then whatever amount of displacement of aqueous is there, it will not open the angles and this is called Synechial angle closure.

• When to do gonioscopy?

All Glaucoma patients need to undergo:

• • • Initial examination
    • Repeat every 1-2 years as the human body is dynamic and with age, health conditions keep on changing

• What is seen through the Goniolens?
  • Schwalbe’s line (SL)
  • Trabecular meshwork (TM)
  • Scleral spur (SS)
  • Ciliary body band (CBB)

In Secondary Glaucoma,

• Pigmentary Glaucoma: Mascara line is seen which has a lot of pigments.
• Pseudoexfoliation Glaucoma: Sampolesi’s Line
• Angle recession: Seen in the case of trauma
• NVG: Abnormal blood vessels as seen in the Neovascular Glaucoma.

4. Visual field

• Visual field testing is known as Perimetry.
• Up to 37% of optic nerve fibers need to be lost before a VFD is found on automated perimetry, usually progressing from mid-peripheral or paracentral VFD in the earlier stages, to loss of central fixation points and temporal visual field loss in advanced
• Standard automated full-threshold static perimetry is preferred; use the same test strategy for comparison.
• Glaucoma visual field defect respects the horizontal meridian. Defects respecting vertical meridian, are likely due to neurophthalmic problems.
• Reliable tests are crucial and influenced by learning, patient comprehension and cooperation, artifacts, and other ocular pathology.
• Characteristic traits of glaucomatous visual field defects:
• Asymmetrical along the horizontal midline
• Located in the mid periphery(5-25° of fixation)
• Reproducible
• Not attributable to any other pathology
• Localized
• Correlating with the appearance of optic disc
• Whenever there is thinning of the inferior neuro-retinal rim, there will be superior optic nerve defect and vice versa.
• After analyzing the structural changes, match them with the corresponding functional defects.

5. Retinal nerve fibre layer (RNFL) analysis: RNFL thinning detected with optical coherence tomography (OCT) is useful to diagnose early glaucoma. Use in conjunction with the other parameters.

6. Risk Factors

• Elevated IOP
• Myopia
• Optic nerve changes
• Family history of glaucoma
• Increasing age
• Race
• Diabetes mellitus
• Cardiovascular disease

Treatment:

The main goals of treatment are:

• To preserve visual function with stable optic nerve and visual field status in the patient’s lifetime, by controlling IOP within the target range and addressing other risk factors, and
• To maintain quality of life.

IOP lowering by medication, laser, or surgery is the mainstay of treatment to prevent glaucoma development and retard progression.

(Detailed discussion in a subsequent blog)

Putting it all together!!

• Does this patient have glaucoma?
• If not, how high is the risk of developing glaucoma?
• What other tests need to be done?
• When do you see this patient back?
• When/How do you start treatment?
• What is the prognosis for this patient?

‘Basic Toolkit for Glaucoma’ by Dr. Parul Ichhpujani

To get conceptual clarity in Ophthalmology online, subscribe to CBME & NEET-oriented Ophthalmology for UnderGrads course.

Dr. Parul Ichhpujani

MS, MBA

Professor at Glaucoma Services

Department of Ophthalmology, Govt. Medical College and Hospital, Chandigarh, India

Christian Medical College (CMC), Vellore is a private medical college, hospital, and research institute. CMC is one of the best private medical colleges in India. In and around Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India, this institute has a network of primary, secondary, and tertiary care hospitals. Dr. Ida Scudder is the founder of CMC Vellore. The college is affiliated with the Tamil Nadu Dr. M.G.R. Medical University, Chennai. CMC, Vellore is approved by NMC (National Medical Commission). It is ranked as one of the top medical colleges in India. The institution offers admission to various disciplines of sciences: medical science, nursing, allied health sciences, some other master’s and doctoral programs, and post-graduate engineering programs.

The college offers admission to various programs including:

• Undergraduate medical course (MBBS)
• Medical postgraduate courses (diploma, degree, and higher speciality courses)
• Certification courses
• Postdoctoral fellowship courses
• Distance education program
• Undergraduate nursing program
• Nursing postgraduate courses (diploma, degree, and fellowships)
• Allied health sciences degree courses
• MBA in hospital and health systems management (HHSM)
• MS Bioengineering
• Tech. Clinical Engineering
• D. Medical Sciences

MBBS in CMC Vellore

MBBS is a four-and-a-half-year course followed by one year compulsory rotating residential internship. In CMC, Vellore, the MBBS course comes under the group A category. As per the CBME curriculum, the undergraduate course in medicine comprises three phases.

Three phases in MBBS Curriculum

Block postings and Internship at CMC Vellore

As per the guidelines of the National Medical Commission,

• Along with regular classes, medical students also have to undergo block postings after phase 1 of their MBBS course at community health centers, mission hospitals, and secondary care centers.
• A medical student also has to compulsorily complete the rotational internship for 12 months. They are posted in the discipline of community health, medicine, surgery, obstetrics & gynecology, orthopaedics, emergency medicine, and short elective subjects.
• At CMC, Vellore, the students are allocated community health centers, mission hospitals, and secondary care centers for internships.

Admission procedure

Admission to the MBBS undergraduate course in CMC, Vellore solely depends on the NEET-UG score. An aspirant to get admission at CMC needs to qualify and crack the NEET-UG (National Eligibility cum Entrance Test) examination with a good score.

Eligibility to get admission at Christian Medical College

1. Candidate must have completed 10+2 higher secondary schooling or equivalent examination, and the last two years of education must include Physics, Chemistry, and Biology/Biotechnology as major subjects with English from the Tamil Nadu State board or any other equivalent examination board.
2. Candidates must have attained a minimum of 50% marks in all the subjects, Physics, Chemistry, Biology/Biotechnology, and English individually for the general category, and a minimum of 40% aggregate for BC, MBC, SC/ST candidates is required in a single attempt. The criteria mentioned are subject to change as per the state & university guidelines.
3. At the time of admission, a candidate must have completed 17 years of age or should complete the mentioned on or before 31^st December of the said year.

NEET-UG Exam Pattern for admission to MBBS at CMC Vellore

The NEET-UG exam is conducted by National Testing Agency (NTA) once a year. The following are some important points to keep in mind:

NEET Exam Section-wise Distribution:

In all 4 Subject sections, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, and Zoology, there are two sections, section A comprises 35 questions and section B comprises 15 questions out of which 10 are to be answered. Each question carries 4 marks.

Number of Seats for 2022-2023 at CMC, Vellore

The total number of MBBS candidate seats is 100 and the seat distribution is as follows:

1. All India open category: 16 seats
   a. One candidate is selected by Govt. of India under the ‘Central Pool Scheme’.
   b. 20% i.e., 3 seats are reserved for the SC/ST candidates.
2. Minority Network Category & CMC, Vellore staff quota: 84 Seats

Steps to get admission into CMC Vellore

1. Fill out the application form for an undergraduate course from the CMC, Vellore official site.
2. Provide your NEET application form details.
3. Submission of the receipts of the certification forms from Minority Network Organizations (if applicable).
4. Apply to the Tamil Nadu Selection Committee for the counseling process in the relevant category.
5. The selection is based on the NEET-UG score and candidates are required to fill the NEET-UG score and rank on the CMC, Vellore admission site.
6. Submission of the Arno & rank of TN Management Quota.
7. Be updated with the release of the merit list.
8. Counseling by Tamil Nadu Selection Committee, DME, Chennai.

All these steps are to be done in the stipulated period as provided by the college. So, be updated.

Admission Process after Counseling at CMC, Vellore

• After the counseling procedure, the candidate is required to register for the course by paying the tuition fees and completing other formalities, and submitting original certificates.
• The admission confirmation is approved by Tamil Nadu Dr. M.G.R. Medical University. Until the approval, admission continues to be provisional.
• After the confirmation of the MBBS admission at CMC, Vellore, a candidate needs to submit their original required documents at the university campus.
• All the candidates getting admission to CMC, Vellore need to undergo a medical fitness check-up and the admission gets confirmed only after the medical fitness clearance by the Medical Board, CMC, Vellore.

MBBS Course Fee at CMC, Vellore

The fees to be paid at the time of registration for admissions to the MBBS course at CMC, Vellore is mentioned in the table below:

*The course fee may change in the coming years depending upon the University rules and regulations.

MBBS Cut-off at CMC, Vellore

Based upon the analysis of the previous years’ cut-offs, the estimated NEET-UG cut-off marks for the MBBS course for admission at CMC, Vellore are mentioned below:

To get the conceptual clarity on the MBBS courses online, click here.

Medical Postgraduate Courses at CMC, Vellore

In CMC, Vellore Admission to PG Degree, Diploma, PG diploma courses, and fellowship courses come under the Group B category. Admission to the MD/MS courses is done based on the NEET-PG score. All the students need to get into the NEET-PG merit list for admission to the PG courses with the required cut-off score.

PG Courses and Number of Seats

The Christian Medical College offers admission to various post-graduate specialization courses.

1. The CMC Vellore provides admission to MD courses for various subjects along with the number of seats mentioned below:

2. The CMC Vellore provides admission to MS courses for various subjects along with the number of seats mentioned below:

Service Obligation at CMC, Vellore

1. The service obligation of 3 years is mandated for all the MS/MD candidates, except for the clinical specialties (General merit category).
2. Candidates admitted to the clinical specialties under the general merit category have a service obligation of 1 year.
3. Candidates admitted to the pre-and para-clinical specialties under the general merit category, have no service obligation.
4. For diploma courses, the service obligation period is a minimum of 2 years whereas, general merit candidates are exempted from the same.
5. After the course completion, the service obligation is served at the CMC, Vellore or any of the associated mission hospitals.

Facilities available for the medical PG trainees

• Stipend
• Accommodation
• Research activity of each department
• Medical records department
• Recreation
• Staff/student health clinic

Fee Structure for the Postgraduate Medical Courses at CMC, Vellore

The fees to be paid at the time of registration for admissions to the Medical PG courses (MD/MS) at CMC are mentioned in the table below:

*The course fee may change in the coming years depending upon the University rules and regulations.

NEET-PG Cut-off Score for MS/MD admission to CMC, Vellore

Based upon the analysis of the previous years’ cut-offs, the estimated cut-off marks for the medical PG specialization courses for admission at CMC, Vellore are mentioned below:

Certificate courses after MBBS

The certificate courses offered by the CMC Vellore for the MBBS graduates are mentioned below:

• CMC, Vellore also provides admission to various higher specialty and Postdoctoral diploma courses and allied health sciences courses.
• After completing MBBS, a medico can also pursue M.Sc. Epidemiology and Master of Public Health Administration.

CMC, Vellore Hostel Fees and Facility

• Hostel Facility for MBBS Students: MBBS students live in the campus hostels. The Bagayam campus of the CMC, Vellore has girls’ and boys’ hostels. The girls’ hostel is named as ‘Paradise on Earth’, while the boys’ hostel is named as ‘Mansion of the Gods’. Boys are required to submit the hostel charges (Deposits and advance) of10,000/- and girls Rs.8,000/-. The approximate living expenses per month for the hostel are Rs.6,000/- for boys and girls. 

• Hostel facility for other courses: The women’s hostel and men’s hostel for the students of allied health courses are named as the ‘Fitch Hostel’ and the ‘Dorothy Joske Hostel’. The ‘Modale International Hostel’ is allocated for the elective course students/visitor observer students from overseas. The hostel and its charges vary as per the student’s course.

All the hostels are well equipped with all the necessities of a student and other facilities such as a Hostel Chapel, recreation room, gymnasium, library, dance room, music room, prayer room, mini kitchen, TV/Projector room. The food facility with vegetarian and non-vegetarian food is also available for all the residents.

How does DigiNerve help a medico?

DigiNerve is an EdTech initiative by Jaypee Brothers, a pioneer and market leader in health science publishing with a legacy spanning over 5 decades. It provides top-notch medical content to enhance conceptual clarity, clinical skills, and ace exams.

In terms of the calibre of the courses, the variety of subjects, the Gold Standard faculty, and the user-friendly interface, DigiNerve is unmatched.

• DigiNerve provides best online courses for MBBS subjects designed by eminent faculty as per CBME Curriculum and NEET Exam, such as

• Apart from the MBBS and MD courses, DigiNerve brings the professional courses ‘Ultrasound in OBGYN Made Easy’ and ‘Basics of Infertility and IUI Made Easy’ by the top faculty Dr. Chaitanya Nagori and Dr. Sonal Panchal. After completion of the course, the candidates will earn a course completion certificate from Ian Donald Inter-University School of Medical Ultrasound.

• An Exam preparation course ‘Cracking MRCP Part 1’ by Dr. Gurpreet Singh Wander and Dr. Archith Boloor, helps a medico with their preparation to crack the MRCP exam. Cracking MRCP Part 1 course is based on the curriculum devised by The Royal College of Physicians (RCP). The course has 15 online modules covering major specialties such as Clinical Sciences, Cardiology, Gastroenterology, etc. The course includes video lectures, e-chapters, 2500+ BOF questions, mock exams, and most of all high-quality notes.

FAQs

1. How many marks are required in NEET for MBBS in CMC Vellore?

Ans: The estimated cut off score for admission to CMC, Vellore is around 600+ in the NEET Examination for general category. For the OBC/SC/ST & Minority groups, the estimated cut-off score is around 500 marks. For sponsored & management quota students, the cut-off range is comparatively lower.

2. Is CMC Vellore a deemed university?

Ans: No, CMC Vellore is not a deemed University. It is a private college, affiliated with Tamil Nadu Dr. M.G.R. Medical University, Chennai run by the Christian community.

3. Is CMC good for MBBS?

Ans: CMC Vellore is ranked 3^rd as per NIRF ranking 2022 after AIIMS, Delhi, and PGIMER, Chandigarh. It is one of the best medical colleges in India.

Gynecology and obstetrics both focus on the female reproductive system. Gynecology deals with non-pregnant women whereas Obstetrics deals with pregnancy and the procedures and issues that go along with it, thus obstetrics deals with both the mother and the infant. To lower the risk of newborn disease and mortality, obstetricians closely collaborate with pediatricians and neonatologists on newborn care. They also remove cancers, fibroids, etc, surgically, although many gynecological problems require hormonal and other pharmacological therapy too.

What an obstetrician does:

The duties obstetricians carry out consist of:

• Obstetricians are in charge of collaborating with midwives to monitor and support a woman’s natural birth while she is in labor.
• One of their roles is to execute an episiotomy, which entails making precise cuts over the pregnant woman’s perineum to widen the birth canal.
• In some cases, assistance may be required to hasten protracted delivery to lessen maternal exhaustion and infant suffering (rising heart rate and possible brain damage to the baby). This makes use of methods like vacuum-assisted birth and forceps delivery.
• Caesarean (or C) section, calls for the baby to be surgically removed from the mother’s womb to lessen difficulties during labor. If a C-section is not used to hurry the delivery, difficulties could ultimately result in the baby’s death or physical harm.
• Therapy and diagnosis of ectopic pregnancy. When the fertilized ovum is implanted somewhere other than the womb, it results in an ectopic pregnancy. It frequently ends up in the fallopian tubes.

What a gynecologist does: 

Gynecologists employ a variety of diagnostic and curative techniques. The following are a few of the common gynecological procedures:

• Hysterectomy or uterus removal
• Removing ovaries
• Fallopian tubes are removed during surgery
• Hysteroscopy and colposcopy involve employing tools like endoscopes to inspect the uterus’ inside.
• Taking care of uterine fibroids
• Identifying and treating sexually transmitted diseases
• Diagnosing menstrual issues, such as absence, severe bleeding, irregular or no periods, etc.
• Examination of the reproductive organs with ultrasound.

Objectives of Learning OBGYN

The Obstetrics and Gynecology Department offers modern, comprehensive screening and therapeutic techniques in a sympathetic environment for women in all stages of life.

In addition to regular gynecology procedures and medical treatments, a dedicated team provides cutting-edge motherhood facilities for routine and high-risk pregnancies, post-delivery and family planning services, sterility screening and handling, and all endoscopic gynecological operations.

Moreover, the department addresses high-risk pregnancies using prenatal diagnostic tests such as infant color doppler, amniocentesis, and velocimetry investigations. It also includes colposcopy, pap smear, and HPV-CO testing for going through menopausal women for cancer screening.

Aspirants can get a variety of profitable jobs in India and overseas by enrolling in this course. You can pursue additional education, such as research studies at prestigious universities and research institutions. Medical specialties like gynecology, cancer, critical care, reproductive endocrinology, or maternal-fetal medicine are all open to you as a career option. In India, postgraduate training in obstetrics and gynecology is either a three-year master’s program or a two-year diploma program. You can pursue a sub-specialty training program in fellowships after finishing your residency training.

OBGYN in MBBS

In their fourth year of MBBS, undergraduate students who are studying OBGYN participate in case discussions in the field of obstetrics and gynecology. A medico must also do a one-month OBGYN internship in addition to this. They receive instruction in the labor room, family planning OPD and OT, and obstetrics and gynecology OPD’s wards and OTs throughout their internship.

PG in OBGYN

A three-year, full-time postgraduate programme in OBGYN aims at training students to provide care to each patient, both pregnant and non-pregnant, as well as a thorough superior assessment of the entire medical pathology associated with the female reproductive organs.

Students learn about the most recent society standards, benchmark studies, breakthroughs in PCOS, robotic surgery, and conducting clinical examinations in OBGYN MD course. In the specialty clinics, OPD, wards, labour rooms, and operating rooms, they perform the necessary tests, interpret the results, and carry out medical/surgical management. They are taught to assess pregnancy-related issues using medical skills, find solutions, and provide pertinent prognoses.

Watch this video to learn the right way to approach OBGYN MD

Ph.D. Scholars of OBGYN

Every Ph.D. candidate has the privilege of choosing their specialty area from a list that includes fetal development and growth, hereditary and genomics, gestational diabetes, parental hepatitis, preeclampsia, prenatal analysis, and screening. Additionally, topics like urogynecology, endometriosis, endometrium, and establishment, prenatal cancer, and genital level are also discussed.

List of Top 10 Colleges for OBGYN in India

Here is the most recent list of top obstetrics and gynecology colleges in India that have earned official NMC recognition. These universities have the highest rankings and are even regarded as the most reputable universities in India

Pharmacology is the study of the interaction of drugs with biological systems. This includes research on the chemical makeup, biological processes, physiological and behavioral impacts, mechanisms of action, and both therapeutic and non-therapeutic applications of pharmaceuticals.

Pharmacology is broadly categorized into two terms:

 

PHARMACOKINETICS IN PHARMACOLOGY

The term ‘Pharmacokinetics’ is derived from ancient Greek words, pharmakon meaning ‘drug’ and kinetikos meaning ‘moving’ or put in motion. Pharmacokinetics is a journey of a drug through the body, and in this, a drug passes through four different phases- Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, and Excretion, which are called ADME properties.

The selection and modification of drug-dose schedules are aided by pharmacokinetic parameters.

Let’s discuss the pharmacokinetic parameters:

1. ABSORPTION:

Absorption is the movement of a drug to the site of action from the site of administration. Various factors affect the extent and rate of absorption of the drug, such as routes of drug administration, dosage form, physiochemical properties of the drug,  bioavailability, pharmacogenetic factors, etc.

First Pass Metabolism: It is a phenomenon in which a drug is metabolized or transformed at a specific site before the drug reaches its site of action or systemic circulation, resulting in a lower concentration of the active substance. Examples of the drugs that undergo this phenomenon in the liver are propranolol, lidocaine, and clomethiazole; in the gut wall are sex hormones.

In the case of intravenous or intra-arterial administration, the drug bypasses the first pass metabolism and enters the circulation directly.

Watch this free video of one of the best online pharmacology courses in MBBS

Drug distribution is the process by which a drug travels from the administered site after absorption via the blood vessel walls to the sites of action.

The drug is distributed via various body fluid compartments, such as plasma, interstitial fluid compartments, and trans-cellular compartments.

Factors affecting the distribution rate of the drug:

• Protein binding of drug
• Plasma concentration of drug (Cp)
• Clearance
• Physiological barriers to distribution
• Drug affinity of drugs to certain tissues

3. METABOLISM:

Drug metabolism, also known as biotransformation, is the process by which the body metabolizes drug molecules. The principal site of drug metabolism is the liver.

Enzymes responsible for drug metabolism are classified into two categories:

• Microsomal enzymes: They are present in the smooth endoplasmic reticulum of the liver, kidney, and GIT. Example: cytochrome P450.
• Non-microsomal enzymes: They are present in the cytoplasm, and mitochondria of different organs. Examples: esterase, amidase, and hydrolase.

Two Phases of Metabolism: Phase I metabolism converts a parent drug to polar active metabolites, via., oxidation, reduction, and hydrolysis reactions, while phase II metabolism converts a parent drug to polar inactive metabolites including conjugation reactions.

Watch this video of Pharmacology for UnderGrads and gain an in-depth understanding of Pharmacology in MBBS.

Drug excretion refers to the removal of drugs in unchanged or modified form out of the body.

The major route of excretion:

1. Renal excretion: It involves three major physiological processes, namely, glomerular filtration, active tubular secretion, and passive tubular reabsorption.
2. Hepatobiliary excretion: The drug with a molecular weight of more than 300 Da and polar drugs are excreted in the bile.
3. Gastrointestinal excretion: After the oral administration of a drug, a part of it is not absorbed and excreted in the feces.
4. Pulmonary excretion: Volatile drugs, such as gaseous anesthetics, are excreted via the lungs into expired air.

Saliva, sweat, tears, breast milk, vaginal fluid, nails, and hair are considered the minor routes of drug excretion.

VARIOUS PHARMACOKINETIC PARAMETERS:

1. Half-life: It is the time taken for the drug concentration in blood or plasma to reduce to half of the original amount, i.e. the amount of the drug in the body is reduced by 50%. A drug’s half-life varies from patient to patient because of a variety of patient and drug-specific factors.

The formula for the half-life is t½ = 0.693 × V_d /CL where,

V_d is the volume of distribution and CL is a clearance factor.

2. Order of Kinetics: For many medications, the most typical is First order kinetics, meaning that a fixed proportion of the drug is eliminated from the body at regular intervals of time. Only a few medications, like ethanol and phenytoin, undergo zero order kinetics wherein, a fixed quantity of the medicine is eliminated after each period.

3. Clearance of a Drug: It is the volume of plasma cleared or removed out of the drug by hepatic and/or renal excretion, among other organs.

Clearance =    Rate of Elimination

Plasma drug concentration

And, Total clearance is calculated by Cl_t = Cl_h + Cl_r + Cl_others where,

Cl_t = Total clearance

Cl_h = Hepatic clearance

Cl_r = Renal clearance

Cl_other = Clearance from all other routes

4. Steady-state plasma concentration: When a drug dose is administered regularly over a certain time, a steady state is reached. It is a point where the amount of medication absorbed and the amount removed from the body is in equilibrium. For instance, a medication that has a half-life of 6 hours will likely reach a steady state after being administered for more than 24 hours (More than 4 half-life).

To access online pharmacokinetics lecture notes, download the DigiNerve app.

Dr. Sandeep Kaushal

MD, MAMS, FCP(ACCP), FIMSA, MBPhS, ACME

Dean Academics, Professor, and Head,

Department of Pharmacology,

Dayanand Medical College and Hospital,

Ludhiana, Punjab